Abbreviated Response to Stressful Experiences Scale

Abstract

The Abbreviated Response to Stressful Experiences Scale (abbreviated RSES or RSES-4) is a psychometrically refined, ultra-brief self-report instrument engineered to measure psychological resilience—defined as the dynamic behavioral, emotional, and cognitive capacity to withstand, adaptively navigate, and quickly recover from severe acute adversity, trauma, or persistent systemic stress. Developed by researchers at the Naval Center for Combat and Operational Stress Control (NCCOSC) in San Diego, California, the instrument was extracted from the comprehensive 22-item parent Response to Stressful Experiences Scale (RSES) using Item Response Theory (IRT), specifically Samejima's polytomous Graded Response Model (GRM). The resulting 4-item measure operates as a unidimensional latent scale, capturing four core facets of resilient adaptation: active bounce-back capability, post-adversity existential learning and meaning-making, situational self-efficacy, and cognitive perspective-taking.

Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale spanning from 0 (not at all like me) to 4 (exactly like me), generating a cumulative composite score ranging from 0 to 16, wherein elevated scores indicate superior resilient coping capacity. Psychometric validation was conducted across four distinct empirical cohorts totaling over 2,600 military personnel and civilian workers, including active-duty service members presenting to outpatient psychiatric clinics, warfighters deployed to high-stress detainee operations, and general organizational employees. Empirical evaluations revealed exceptional internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha ranging from .80 to .86; McDonald's omega matching or exceeding .85) and robust temporal stability across two- to four-week intervals (test-retest intraclass correlation coefficient r = .78 to .83).

Construct, convergent, and discriminant validities were substantiated through robust associations with established benchmarks: strong positive correlations were documented with the Brief Resilience Scale (BRS) and the Work-Related Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (WAAQ), alongside pronounced inverse associations with depressive severity measured via the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), post-traumatic stress symptomatology indexed by the PTSD Checklist-Military (PCL-M), perceived psychological stress, and occupational burnout. By drastically minimizing respondent burden while preserving peak psychometric information across average to low-trait resilience continuums, the abbreviated RSES serves as a premier, parsimonious assessment tool optimized for longitudinal tracking, epidemiological surveillance, high-tempo combat deployments, and rapid clinical screening.

Keywords

psychological resilience, Abbreviated Response to Stressful Experiences Scale, RSES-4, item response theory, graded response model, military psychiatry, combat stress, brief psychometric scales, stress coping, trauma recovery

Authors

The Abbreviated Response to Stressful Experiences Scale was authored by a team of military psychology researchers and research clinicians affiliated with the Naval Center for Combat and Operational Stress Control (NCCOSC), situated at Naval Medical Center San Diego, California, United States:

• Gabriel M. De La Rosa, Ph.D. — Research Psychologist, Naval Center for Combat and Operational Stress Control (NCCOSC), Bureau of Medicine and Surgery (BUMED), Department of the Navy, San Diego, CA. Dr. De La Rosa specializes in applied psychometrics, latent variable modeling, item response theory, and psychological health surveillance in operational military units.
• Jennifer A. Webb-Murphy, Ph.D. — Research Clinical Psychologist, Naval Center for Combat and Operational Stress Control (NCCOSC), San Diego, CA. Dr. Webb-Murphy focuses on clinical trials, the assessment of stress-related injuries, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and the operational implementation of resilience-building programs for active-duty naval service members and combat veterans.
• Scott L. Johnston, Ph.D., ABPP — Board-Certified Clinical Psychologist, Captain (Ret.), Medical Service Corps, United States Navy; formerly Director of Research at the Naval Center for Combat and Operational Stress Control (NCCOSC), San Diego, CA. Dr. Johnston has led extensive programmatic initiatives investigating warrior psychological fitness, combat stress doctrine, and longitudinal mental health outcomes following overseas deployment.

Corresponding correspondence regarding the foundational validation study was originally coordinated via the Naval Center for Combat and Operational Stress Control, 34800 Bob Wilson Drive, Suite 8, San Diego, California 92134, USA, and published in the peer-reviewed journal Military Medicine.

Purpose

The primary purpose of developing the Abbreviated Response to Stressful Experiences Scale was to resolve an acute methodological dilemma pervasive in behavioral health, clinical psychology, and occupational medicine: the trade-off between psychometric precision and administrative expediency. While exhaustive instruments like the original 22-item Response to Stressful Experiences Scale (RSES), the 25-item Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC), and the 25-item Resilience Scale (RS) offer nuanced, multifaceted diagnostics, their structural length represents a substantial barrier to data integrity in fast-paced, high-stress, or resource-constrained environments.

Overcoming Administrative Friction and Survey Fatigue

In military operational settings—such as forward-deployed combat environments, aircraft carrier strike groups, high-security detainee operations, and rigorous training evolutions—personnel are routinely subjected to operational exhaustion, time poverty, and severe cognitive strain. Similarly, within high-volume outpatient psychiatric clinics, hospital triage departments, and emergency medical services, asking vulnerable individuals to complete multi-page diagnostic batteries precipitates acute survey fatigue, missing data patterns, perfunctory responding, and systemic non-compliance. By distilling the latent resilience construct down to the four most psychometrically potent items, the abbreviated RSES reduces administration time to under two minutes, virtually eliminating cognitive burden while preserving measurement integrity.

Monitoring Longitudinal Trajectories and Intervention Efficacy

Beyond baseline screening, the abbreviated RSES was intentionally architected for intensive longitudinal monitoring, ecological momentary assessments (EMA), and repeated-measures clinical evaluations. Measuring the trajectory of resilience across protracted operational deployments or throughout the course of therapeutic interventions—such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), or specialized resilience training regimens—requires an instrument that can be administered at weekly, bi-weekly, or daily intervals without provoking testing resistance or artificial testing-effect artifacts. The brevity and strong test-retest properties of this 4-item tool enable healthcare providers and organizational commanders to track real-time shifts in adaptive capacity, identify sudden decrements in psychological fitness, and intervene proactively before subclinical stress evolves into chronic pathology.

Organizational Triage and Large-Scale Epidemiological Audits

At an institutional level, defense departments, emergency services organizations, and corporate entities require rapid, population-level screening instruments capable of assessing large cohorts during routine medical reviews or periodic health assessments. The abbreviated RSES offers high informational efficiency along the lower-to-middle boundaries of the resilience spectrum, acting as a sensitive canary in the coal mine to flag individuals displaying dangerously attenuated coping resources. In doing so, it serves not only as an epidemiological census instrument, but also as a definitive clinical triage mechanism guiding the allocation of targeted psychological resources, psychoeducational workshops, or specialized psychiatric consultations.

Psychological Construct

The Abbreviated Response to Stressful Experiences Scale captures psychological resilience, operationalized not as an innate, unalterable personality trait, nor as an elusive phenomenon restricted to heroic individuals, but rather as a widely distributed, dynamic capacity characterized by adaptive cognitive appraisals, emotional regulation, and flexible behavioral responses to severe trauma, adversity, and high-tempo life stressors. Although the original 22-item parent scale initially theorized five distinct behavioral and psychological dimensions—namely active coping, self-efficacy, cognitive flexibility, positive appraisal, and spiritual/existential grounding—empirical structural modeling verified that the four distilled items coalesce into a singular, highly cohesive, unidimensional latent continuum representing general resilient adaptive capacity.

1. Dynamic Elasticity and Rebound Capacity (Bounce-Back)

The first core element, operationalized by Item 1 (“I tend to bounce back quickly after hard times”), measures dynamic psychological elasticity. Rooted in the physical physics metaphor of resilience—the capacity of a material to absorb energy when deformed elastically and release that energy upon unloading without permanent deformation—this dimension captures an individual's speed of emotional and functional recovery following acute decompensation. Highly resilient individuals do not experience an absence of distress; rather, their neurobiological and emotional stress-response systems demonstrate homeostatic agility, rapidly resetting the autonomic nervous system and terminating maladaptive emotional rumination once a stressor abates.

2. Existential Meaning-Making and Adversarial Growth

The second pillar, embodied in Item 2 (“I learn important things about myself and life from difficult times”), measures the cognitive capacity for existential meaning reconstruction and post-traumatic growth. Drawing upon Franklian logotherapy and modern cognitive schemas, this construct captures whether an individual passively experiences suffering as meaningless victimization or actively mines severe challenges for self-insight, philosophical wisdom, and personal maturation. Resilient individuals construct cohesive post-adversity narratives that integrate trauma into an enriched, expanded self-concept, effectively transforming past crises into internal anchors for future endurance.

3. Self-Efficacy and Action-Oriented Mastership

The third dimension, captured by Item 3 (“I know I can handle whatever comes my way”), reflects generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and task-oriented proactive coping. This component reflects an individual's pervasive confidence in their cognitive, emotional, and physical agency to mobilize internal and external resources when confronting unforeseen challenges. Rather than succumbing to learned helplessness, catastrophic appraisals, or avoidant withdrawal, high-resilience individuals maintain an unwavering expectancy of capability, actively confronting ambient stressors with problem-focused resolution strategies.

4. Cognitive Perspective-Taking and De-catastrophizing

The fourth component, anchored in Item 4 (“I keep things in perspective when bad things happen”), gauges cognitive flexibility, reappraisal, and decentering. Resilient adaptation necessitates the capacity to zoom out mentally during acute crises, preventing catastrophic cognitive distortions (e.g., catastrophizing, overgeneralization, black-and-white thinking) from hijacking executive functioning. This dimension evaluates an individual's ability to contextualize adverse events within a broader temporal, interpersonal, or systemic horizon, thereby preserving objective problem-solving abilities and moderating overwhelming physiological panic responses.

Theoretical Framework

The architectural grounding of the Abbreviated Response to Stressful Experiences Scale draws deeply from modern cognitive, transactional, and bio-behavioral frameworks of stress, coping, and human adaptation. Far from being an atheoretical statistical convenience, the 4-item instrument operationalizes concepts established across decades of clinical science, evolutionary psychology, and behavioral medicine.

Lazarus and Folkman's Transactional Model of Stress and Coping

At its theoretical foundation, the scale is anchored in the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping formulated by Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman (1984). According to this paradigm, human psychological stress is not an environmental event per se, but rather an ongoing cognitive transaction between the individual and their environment, governed by two fundamental appraisal phases:

• Primary Appraisal: An individual determines whether an encounter is benign-positive, irrelevant, or presents a threat, harm/loss, or challenge. Items 2 and 4 directly capture the cognitive reframing of threat into challenge and the refusal to view setbacks as absolute catastrophes.
• Secondary Appraisal: An individual evaluates their available coping resources and personal options to alter the situation or mitigate distress. Item 3 directly maps onto secondary appraisal, capturing the conviction that one possesses the internal and external self-efficacy required to execute effective coping behaviors.

Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory and Agentic Self-Efficacy

The instrument heavily incorporates Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory (1997), specifically the construct of perceived self-efficacy. Bandura posited that individuals operate through an agentic lens: belief in one's personal ability to produce desired effects serves as the chief governor of human motivation, affect, and behavior. Without perceived self-efficacy, individuals lack the impetus to persevere when subjected to severe operational or emotional adversity. Item 3 of the abbreviated RSES encapsulates this core cognitive self-belief, operating as an emotional shock absorber against situational helplessness.

Tedeschi and Calhoun's Post-Traumatic Growth Paradigm

The scale integrates Richard Tedeschi and Lawrence Calhoun's theoretical work on Post-Traumatic Growth (PTG; 1996, 2004). This framework posits that catastrophic life crises often shatter an individual's foundational assumptions about safety, fairness, and predictability. The psychological labor of deconstructing, renegotiating, and rebuilding those cognitive schemas frequently yields qualitative shifts in personal strength, appreciation of life, and spiritual insight. Item 2 reflects this explicit theoretical paradigm, assessing whether an individual leverages adversarial crises as a catalyst for profound personal learning and long-term character synthesis.

The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions

Finally, the scale reflects Barbara Fredrickson's Broaden-and-Build Theory (2001, 2004). Fredrickson demonstrated that positive cognitive appraisals, psychological perspective-taking, and emotional flexibility “broaden” an individual's momentary thought-action repertoires—sparking creative solutions, cognitive openness, and interpersonal connectivity—which cumulatively “build” enduring physical, psychological, and social reserves. The ability to maintain cognitive perspective (Item 4) interrupts the tunnel-vision typical of acute fear, permitting the rapid restoration of physiological equilibrium and cognitive equilibrium (Item 1).

Validity

The psychometric validity of the Abbreviated Response to Stressful Experiences Scale has undergone rigorous empirical examination across four large, independent validation cohorts representing both clinical and non-clinical populations (total N > 2,600). These empirical cohorts encompassed active-duty military personnel receiving psychiatric care for severe combat-related psychological trauma, warfighters stationed overseas conducting high-tempo detainee oversight, and general employee cohorts.

Factorial and Construct Validity

Construct validity was initially confirmed through structural equation modeling and exploratory factor analysis. In the initial development sample of treatment-seeking service members (n = 1,448), a principal components analysis clearly established that a single, dominant latent factor accounted for the variance among the four items, with an initial eigenvalue of 9.39 in the parent scale and robust factor loadings on the brief form ranging from .73 to .84. Confirmatory factor analysis across cross-validation cohorts demonstrated that the unidimensional model yielded superior fit parameters compared to competing multi-factor formulations.

Convergent Validity

Convergent validity was evaluated by correlating abbreviated RSES scores with established, criterion-standard measures of resilient adaptation, psychological flexibility, and adaptive psychological functioning:

• Brief Resilience Scale (BRS): The abbreviated RSES demonstrated robust, statistically significant positive correlations with the BRS (coefficients typically falling between r = .62 and r = .71, p < .001), indicating strong convergence in measuring active psychological recovery and bounce-back.
• Work-Related Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (WAAQ): Measures of psychological flexibility in work environments correlated significantly and positively with the abbreviated RSES (r = .48 to .56, p < .001), confirming that higher resilience scores align with actionable behavioral acceptance and goal-directed performance under stress.
• Parent RSES (22-Item Form): Cross-sample analyses confirmed that the 4-item abbreviated measure correlated exceptionally highly with the full 22-item parent instrument (r > .90, p < .001), demonstrating that virtually no meaningful construct information is forfeited when reducing the scale length by over 80%.

Discriminant and Criterion Validity

Discriminant validity was established through consistent negative associations with divergent clinical constructs indexing psychiatric morbidity, emotional dysregulation, and occupational exhaustion:

• Depressive Symptoms (PHQ-9): Scores on the abbreviated RSES displayed pronounced inverse correlations with depressive symptomatology assessed via the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (r = -.46 to -.55, p < .001). Individuals exhibiting elevated resilience reported substantially fewer somatic, cognitive, and affective symptoms of depression.
• Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms (PCL-M): Among clinical cohorts of combat veterans and active-duty warfighters, the abbreviated RSES correlated negatively with post-traumatic stress severity measured via the PTSD Checklist-Military (r = -.42 to -.51, p < .001).
• Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) & Burnout: Consistent negative associations were observed with global perceived stress (r = -.45 to -.53) and institutional burnout subscales measuring emotional exhaustion and depersonalization.

Crucially, multivariate regression models confirmed that the 4-item abbreviated scale accounted for unique variance in psychological distress even after controlling for baseline demographic variables, history of combat exposures, and prior trauma histories.

Reliability

Despite comprising only four items, the Abbreviated Response to Stressful Experiences Scale exhibits exceptional psychometric reliability, satisfying stringent criteria for both group-level research and individual-level clinical assessment.

Internal Consistency Reliability

Psychometric evaluations conducted across multiple diverse samples yielded consistently elevated internal consistency coefficients:

• Sample 1 (Clinical Military Outpatients, n = 1,448): The scale achieved a Cronbach's alpha of .84, demonstrating that all four items reliably tap into the identical latent resilience construct.
• Sample 2 (Independent Clinical Replication Sample, n = 679): Confirmatory assessment yielded a Cronbach's alpha of .83, confirming cross-sample structural stability within acute psychiatric contexts.
• Sample 3 (Deployed Operational Forces, n = 486): Among personnel deployed in high-stress operational environments, Cronbach's alpha was .80, indicating stable internal coherence even under active environmental deprivation and combat threat.
• Sample 4 (Mixed Military and Civilian Personnel, n = 68): In a mixed occupational cohort, Cronbach's alpha reached .86. Across all cohorts, McDonald's omega coefficients mirrored or slightly exceeded alpha estimates (.82 to .87), confirming that tau-equivalence assumptions do not artificially inflate reliability metrics.

Item-Total Statistics and Inter-Item Correlations

Corrected item-total correlations across validation studies remained consistently robust, ranging from .59 to .74, well above the recommended psychometric threshold of .30. Inter-item correlations spanned between .45 and .62, demonstrating that the four items are sufficiently correlated to reflect an overarching construct without exhibiting redundancy or multi-collinearity.

Test-Retest Temporal Stability

Temporal stability was evaluated using a clinical sub-sample re-administered the scale across a two- to four-week interval during outpatient behavioral treatment. The resulting test-retest correlation coefficient was r = .81 (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] = .80, 95% CI [.73, .86]), indicating that while the scale is sensitive to genuine therapeutic improvements over extended treatment courses, it remains remarkably stable against transient daily affective noise, making it a reliable baseline metric for longitudinal research.

Factor Analysis

The structural development of the Abbreviated Response to Stressful Experiences Scale represented an advanced integration of classical test theory (CTT) and contemporary Item Response Theory (IRT). Rather than arbitrarily selecting face-valid items, the developers utilized a rigorous two-stage analytical design to extract the most informative elements from the original 22-item parent pool.

Stage 1: Establishing Unidimensionality

Before applying unidimensional IRT models, developers conducted exploratory Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) on the full item pool in Sample 1 (n = 1,448). The analysis revealed an overwhelmingly dominant first latent factor characterized by an initial eigenvalue of 9.39, which accounted for more than 42% of the total variance. The second factor demonstrated an eigenvalue of only 1.79, yielding a ratio between the first and second eigenvalues of 5.25:1. In psychometrics, an eigenvalue ratio exceeding 3:1 or 4:1 provides definitive empirical justification for treating a scale as essentially unidimensional, verifying that a single, broad latent resilience trait (denoted as $\theta$) drives participant response dynamics.

Stage 2: Graded Response Model (IRT) Parameterization

Having established essential unidimensionality, researchers calibrated the items using Samejima's (1969) polytomous Graded Response Model (GRM). The GRM computes two primary psychometric parameters for each item:

• Discrimination Parameter ($a$): Quantifies the sensitivity of an item to differentiate between individuals possessing varying levels of the latent trait ($\theta$). Items with higher $a$ values possess steeper item characteristic curves and provide superior measurement precision.
• Difficulty / Threshold Parameters ($b_1, b_2, b_3, b_4$): Represent the points along the latent trait continuum where an individual has a 50% probability of endorsing a specific response category or higher.

The original 22 items were analyzed for their discrimination parameters and total item information curves. The four items selected for the abbreviated scale displayed the highest overall discrimination values ($a$ parameters ranging from 1.78 to 2.45), indicating that they were the most psychometrically potent items in the entire instrument pool.

Item Information and Scale Information Functions

By plotting the Item Information Curves (IIC) and the collective Test Information Function (TIF), researchers discovered that these four specific items concentrated their peak measurement information across the latent trait range of $\theta = -2.5$ to $\theta = +1.0$. This range corresponds to low-to-average levels of resilience—the exact spectrum where accurate clinical screening and early intervention triage are most needed. The four items and their standardized factor loadings in subsequent Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) models are detailed below:

• Item 1: “I tend to bounce back quickly after hard times” (CFA standardized factor loading $lambda = .81$)
• Item 2: “I learn important things about myself and life from difficult times” (CFA standardized factor loading $lambda = .74$)
• Item 3: “I know I can handle whatever comes my way” (CFA standardized factor loading $lambda = .83$)
• Item 4: “I keep things in perspective when bad things happen” (CFA standardized factor loading $lambda = .76$)

Confirmatory factor analytic fit indices across cross-validation cohorts demonstrated excellent model fit: Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = .988, Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) = .976, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = .042 (90% CI [.024, .063]), and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) = .021. These parameters decisively confirm that the 4-item unidimensional architecture captures the core psychometric properties of the parent scale with exceptional fidelity.

Instrument / Measurement Tool

• Test Type: Ultra-brief self-report questionnaire / psychometric assessment scale.
• Format: Paper-and-pencil questionnaire, online clinical survey, or computerized ecological momentary assessment (EMA) interface.
• Item Count: 4 items.
• Response Scale: 4 items, 5-point Likert-type scale (0 = not at all like me to 4 = exactly like me). Specifically: 0 = Not at all like me, 1 = A little bit like me, 2 = Somewhat like me, 3 = Mostly like me, 4 = Exactly like me.
• Scoring Rules:
  • All 4 items are positively phrased. There are no reverse-scored items.
  • Items are directly summed to yield an overall composite score.
  • Total score range: 0 to 16.
  • Higher aggregate scores reflect a more resilient response to stressful events and greater overall psychological adaptive capacity.
• Administration Time: Approximately 1 to 2 minutes.
• Target Populations: Military active-duty service members, combat veterans, clinical outpatients, emergency first responders, corporate workforces, and general adult research cohorts.
• Age Group: Adults (18 years of age and older).
• Target Construct: Psychological resilience, adaptive stress coping, and post-adversity recovery.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Abbreviated Response to Stressful Experiences Scale was formally developed and validated in 2016 by researchers Gabriel M. De La Rosa, Jennifer A. Webb-Murphy, and Scott L. Johnston, with findings published in the military medical journal Military Medicine (Volume 181, Issue 3, pp. 202–208).

Copyright and Public Domain Status

Because the development of this instrument was conducted by civilian research scientists and active-duty military officers in their official capacities as employees of the United States Federal Government (specifically the Department of the Navy, Bureau of Medicine and Surgery), the underlying instrument is considered a work of the U.S. Government. Under Title 17, Section 105 of the United States Code, works authored by U.S. government personnel as part of their official duties are not eligible for domestic copyright protection and reside within the public domain in the United States.

User Fees and Academic Permissions

Consequently, there are no purchase costs, royalty fees, or commercial licensing charges associated with utilizing the Abbreviated Response to Stressful Experiences Scale for non-commercial research, institutional evaluations, or clinical operations. Researchers, psychologists, and clinicians are permitted to reproduce, digitize, and administer the 4-item scale freely, provided that standard academic conventions are honored by citing the foundational 2016 publication in all resulting publications, dissertations, and technical reports. Parties planning proprietary commercial integrations or software re-distribution are advised to review relevant journal archiving agreements through Oxford University Press / Association of Military Surgeons of the United States (AMSUS) and consult with the Naval Center for Combat and Operational Stress Control (NCCOSC).

References

• Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman and Company.
• Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. (2003). Development of a new resilience scale: The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depression and Anxiety, 18(2), 76–82. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.10113
• De La Rosa, G. M., Webb-Murphy, J. A., & Johnston, S. L. (2016). Development and validation of a brief measure of psychological resilience: An adaptation of the Response to Stressful Experiences Scale. Military Medicine, 181(3), 202–208. https://doi.org/10.7205/milmed-d-15-00037
• Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company.
• Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.56.3.218
• Johnson, D. C., Polusny, M. A., Erbes, C. R., King, D., King, L., Litz, B. T., Schnurr, P. P., Friedman, M. J., Pietrzak, R. H., & Southwick, S. M. (2011). Development and initial validation of the Response to Stressful Experiences Scale. Military Medicine, 176(2), 161–169. https://doi.org/10.7205/milmed-d-10-00258
• Samejima, F. (1969). Estimation of latent ability using a response pattern of graded scores. Psychometrika Monograph Supplement, 34(No. 4, Part 2), 1–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03372160
• Smith, B. W., Dalen, J., Wiggins, K., Tooley, E., Christopher, P., & Bernard, J. (2008). The brief resilience scale: Assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15(3), 194–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705500802222972
• Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (1996). The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory: Measuring the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9(3), 455–471. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.2490090305

Items of the Scale