Acculturation Scale for Consumer Research (ASCR)

Abstract

The Acculturation Scale for Consumer Research (ASCR), developed and refined across seminal investigations by Michel Laroche, Chankon Kim, and Marc A. Tomiuk (e.g., Laroche, Kim, & Tomiuk, 1998; Laroche, Kim, Hui, & Joy, 1996), represents a foundational psychometric instrument engineered to quantify the multidimensional nature of acculturation and ethnic identity maintenance within multicultural marketplaces. Consumer acculturation describes the complex socialization process through which individuals from minority or immigrant backgrounds acquire the cultural norms, values, consumption patterns, and behavioral orientations of a dominant host culture while simultaneously retaining, negotiating, or shedding characteristics of their heritage culture. Rather than treating acculturation as a simplistic, unipolar continuum where host-culture acquisition inevitably mandates heritage-culture erosion, the ASCR is grounded in a bidimensional, orthogonal paradigm that operationalizes ethnic identity maintenance and host-culture adoption as distinct, co-occurring psychological phenomena.

The ASCR comprises 25 standardized items mapped across four primary latent dimensions: Language Use (evaluating linguistic proficiency and contextual communicative preferences across interpersonal and cognitive domains), Media Consumption (capturing both linguistic media preference and dedicated ethnic media engagement), Interpersonal Social Interactions (measuring the ethnic composition of immediate peer networks, hospitality circles, and community affiliations), and Ethnic Self-Identification and Pride (gauging the affective, cognitive, and evaluative dimensions of heritage attachment). Utilizing a 9-point response format tailored to each domain—contrasting heritage versus host linguistic usage alongside traditional agreement Likert scales—the ASCR yields granular subscale scores that facilitate advanced segmentation, such as integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalization. Extensive psychometric validation confirms robust internal consistency (Cronbach’s α coefficients frequently exceeding .85 to .94 across factors), strong confirmatory factor analytic (CFA) construct validity, and pronounced predictive validity in forecasting consumer behaviors, including preferences for traditional versus convenience foods, responsiveness to targeted ethnic marketing, brand loyalty, and host-culture marketplace navigation.

Keywords

Acculturation Scale for Consumer Research, Consumer Acculturation, Ethnic Identity Maintenance, Cross-Cultural Consumer Behavior, Michel Laroche, Multidimensional Acculturation, Psychometrics, Factor Analysis, Food Consumption Behavior, Host Culture Acquisition, Ethnic Media Consumption, Social Network Homophily

Authors

The Acculturation Scale for Consumer Research was conceived, psychometrically validated, and extensively applied by a distinguished group of consumer psychologists and marketing scholars, principally centered at Concordia University in Montreal, Quebec, Canada:

• Michel Laroche, Ph.D., FRSC: Royal Bank Distinguished Professor of Marketing at the John Molson School of Business, Concordia University. Dr. Laroche is an internationally acclaimed authority on cross-cultural consumer behavior, marketing communication, and psychometric scale development. A Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, the American Psychological Association (APA), and the Society for Marketing Advances, his research has defined contemporary quantitative approaches to ethnic identity, brand equity, and multidimensional consumer acculturation.
• Chankon Kim, Ph.D.: Professor of Marketing at the John Molson School of Business, Concordia University, and Saint Mary’s University. Dr. Kim’s scholarship focuses on family decision-making dynamics, ethnic minority consumer socialization, cross-cultural research methodology, and structural equation modeling of immigrant adaptation.
• Marc A. Tomiuk, Ph.D.: Associate Professor of Marketing and consumer researcher who has collaborated extensively on empirical investigations dissecting ethnic identity retention, consumer sentiment, financial services adoption among ethnic subcultures, and dietary acculturation.

Direct academic correspondence regarding the theoretical derivations and empirical structures of the scale has historically been routed through the Department of Marketing, John Molson School of Business, Concordia University, 1455 De Maisonneuve Blvd. West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Acculturation Scale for Consumer Research (ASCR) is to provide empirical researchers and marketing practitioners with a theoretically grounded, psychometrically rigorous measurement tool capable of diagnosing how immigrant and ethnic minority consumers navigate the dual cultural influences of their heritage origin and host society. Historically, market researchers operationalized acculturation using crude, single-indicator demographic proxies—such as generational status, years of residence in the host nation, or foreign-born versus native-born status. Such reductionist approaches systematically failed to capture the psychological, affective, and behavioral nuances governing consumer choice, ignoring the reality that two individuals with identical lengths of residence may exhibit vastly divergent levels of psychological attachment to their ancestral heritage and varying degrees of immersion in host-market practices.

The ASCR was engineered to rectify these methodological deficits by measuring subjective cultural orientation across specific behavioral and affective touchpoints that directly dictate marketplace interactions. In practical consumer research, the instrument addresses why and how consumers balance convenience-oriented, modern host products against traditional, culturally anchored goods. In clinical, cross-cultural, and public policy contexts, the ASCR serves as an assessment battery for understanding immigrant adaptation stress, health-related dietary transitions, intergenerational consumer conflict within immigrant households, and the socio-structural factors that facilitate or inhibit economic and social integration.

From an applied commercial perspective, the ASCR fulfills three vital analytical functions:

• Micro-Segmentation: It allows researchers to move beyond broad demographic categorization (e.g., “Hispanic,” “Asian-American,” “Italian-Canadian”) to construct distinct psychographic segments based on multidimensional acculturative status, identifying whether a consumer acts as an assimilated shopper, an integrated bicultural consumer, a separated traditionalist, or an alienated individual.
• Communication Strategy and Media Planning: By isolating media preferences and language usage across distinct contexts (home, work, internal cognition), the ASCR provides actionable insight into whether advertising messages should be deployed in the heritage language or host language, and whether they should be delivered via specialized ethnic media or mainstream channels.
• Product Portfolio Adaptation: The scale enables predictive modeling regarding which product categories are fiercely protected by cultural traditions (such as festive foods, family-centric ritual items, and heritage celebrations) and which categories are rapidly open to host-culture substitution (such as convenience packaged foods, technological commodities, and utilitarian services).

Psychological Construct

The core psychological construct measured by the ASCR is consumer acculturation, viewed through the operational lens of ethnic identity maintenance versus host-culture acquisition. In the conceptual framework formulated by Laroche, Kim, and colleagues, ethnic identity is not a static demographic trait, but a dynamic, multifaceted cognitive and affective structure composed of multiple observable indicators. The ASCR measures this psychological construct across four granular latent dimensions:

1. Language Use (Cognitive and Interpersonal Linguistic Orientation)

Language serves as the primary cognitive vehicle through which culture is acquired, mediated, and expressed. The ASCR conceptualizes language use not merely as mechanical fluency, but as an ecological, situational choice reflecting psychological comfort and cultural identity. This dimension assesses linguistic selection across intimate interpersonal environments (speaking with parents, spouse, children, and close relatives), public/instrumental environments (workplace, educational settings), and private cognitive functions (the language of internal thought and subjective linguistic comfort). Consumers who continue to process information and conduct intimate interactions primarily in their heritage language display deep cognitive anchoring in their ancestral worldview, which correlates strongly with reliance on ethnic brand cues and heuristics.

2. Media Consumption (Host vs. Ethnic Channel Allocation)

Media consumption captures the explicit informational environment selected by the consumer. It reflects both behavioral exposure and passive socialization. In the ASCR, this dimension measures the linguistic vehicle of mass media channels—such as radio, broadcast television, print publications (newspapers, magazines), and cinematic content—while also evaluating the active, deliberate consumption of dedicated ethnic-origin broadcasting and literature. Media choices act as a powerful barometer of acculturation, as host-culture media consumption accelerates the adoption of host-country consumer values, fashion norms, and material aspirations, whereas ethnic media consumption actively reinforces ancestral identity, cultural pride, and community solidarity.

3. Interpersonal Social Interactions (Social Network Homophily)

Rooted in sociological theories of homophily, this dimension measures the degree to which an individual’s immediate social fabric is bounded by ethnic in-group ties or integrated within the out-group host population. The scale assesses the ethnic origin of closest friends, guest composition at intimate domestic social gatherings (dinner parties), informal visitation patterns, preference for ethnic-community-sponsored social gatherings, and active institutional involvement in ethnic clubs and cultural associations. Consumers whose social circles remain strictly within their heritage in-group experience constant normative pressure to conform to traditional consumption scripts, family meal rituals, and ethnic buying conventions.

4. Ethnic Self-Identification and Pride (Affective and Subjective Attachment)

Representing the deepest affective core of ethnic identity, this dimension assesses an individual’s conscious self-categorization, emotional attachment, and ideological dedication to their ancestral lineage. It measures subjective identification (“I strongly identify myself as an ethnic person”), psychological attachment to ancestral traditions, subjective pride in lineage, the perceived imperative of preserving heritage customs for future generations, and the behavioral preference for celebrating ethnic holidays. Crucially, research with the ASCR has demonstrated that individuals may achieve high behavioral acculturation (e.g., speaking the host language fluently in professional settings) while maintaining exceptionally high affective ethnic pride—a pattern central to the construct of biculturalism.

Theoretical Framework

The conceptual foundation of the ASCR rests at the intersection of cross-cultural psychology, consumer socialization theory, and Social Identity Theory. For several decades, social science literature was dominated by unipolar, linear assimilation models, most notably advanced by Robert E. Park (1928) and Milton Gordon (1964). These early paradigms posited that acculturation was a zero-sum, irreversible journey: as immigrants acquired the linguistic patterns, cultural norms, and behavioral repertoires of the host society, they inevitably dismantled and surrendered their heritage culture.

The Bidimensional Revolution: Berry and Beyond

The ASCR formally broke away from linear assimilation paradigms by adopting the bidimensional framework pioneered by cross-cultural psychologist John W. Berry (1980, 1997), alongside the orthogonal cultural identification theories proposed by Oetting and Beauvais (1990). Berry posited that acculturative adaptation involves two conceptually independent issues:

1. Cultural Maintenance: Is it considered of value to maintain one’s cultural identity and characteristics?
2. Contact and Participation: Is it considered of value to maintain relationships with and participate in the larger, host society?

Intersecting these two orthogonal axes produces four distinct acculturation strategies: Integration (high maintenance, high host participation; classic biculturalism), Assimilation (low maintenance, high host participation), Separation (high maintenance, low host participation; traditional enclave retention), and Marginalization (low maintenance, low host participation; psychological alienation). Laroche and colleagues integrated this model into consumer research, demonstrating that an individual’s desire to maintain ethnic identity operates orthogonally to their acquisition of host-culture marketplace skills.

Consumer Acculturation Theory (CAT)

The scale directly operationalizes principles articulated within Consumer Acculturation Theory, prominently advanced by Lisa Peñaloza (1994). Peñaloza defined consumer acculturation as the general process by which people acquire the consumption-related skills, knowledge, and behaviors relevant to an unfamiliar cultural environment. Rather than viewing consumer behaviors as isolated purchasing acts, CAT posits that purchasing, brand evaluation, food preparation, and media processing serve as expressive arenas wherein cultural identity is negotiated, contested, and displayed. The ASCR provides the standardized psychometric instrumentation necessary to quantify these consumer socialization trajectories.

Social Identity Theory and Self-Categorization

Underpinning the Ethnic Self-Identification and Pride dimension is Henri Tajfel and John Turner’s Social Identity Theory (1986). Individuals derive significant components of their self-concept, self-esteem, and social belonging from their perceived membership in social and cultural groups. In consumer contexts, strong in-group identification prompts consumers to utilize ethnic consumption practices as symbolic identity markers. Items within the ASCR tap directly into in-group favoritism, collective self-esteem, and symbolic resistance against cultural homogenization, directly predicting why high-identity consumers deliberately select heritage goods even when host-market alternatives are more widely accessible or economically advantageous.

Validity

The psychometric validity of the ASCR has been rigorously scrutinized across numerous empirical investigations spanning various ethnic minority groups, immigrant populations, and consumer goods categories, establishing robust construct, convergent, discriminant, and predictive criterion-related validity.

Construct and Convergent Validity

Construct validity has been established through structural equation modeling (SEM) and confirmatory factor analysis across multiple studies conducted by Laroche et al. (1996, 1997, 1998) and subsequent cross-cultural scholars. Factor loadings across the four core dimensions regularly fall within the .70 to .92 range, demonstrating that the observed items are potent manifestations of their respective latent constructs. Convergent validity is evidenced by strong, statistically significant correlations between the ASCR dimensions and objective demographic markers of acculturation:

• Generational Status: First-generation immigrants display significantly higher scores on heritage language use, ethnic social interaction, and ethnic pride compared to second- and third-generation cohorts (p < .001).
• Length of Host Residence: Chronological years spent within the host country correlate positively with host-language proficiency and host media engagement, while displaying nuanced, non-linear relationships with ethnic pride—reinforcing the bidimensional independence of the constructs.
• Spousal and Parental Cultural Origin: Participants married to in-group members exhibit substantially higher scores on the social interaction and home language subscales than those in intercultural unions.

Discriminant Validity

Discriminant validity between the four dimensions has been verified using the criteria of Fornell and Larcker (1981), where the average variance extracted (AVE) for each latent construct consistently exceeds the squared inter-construct correlations (φ²). For instance, while Language Use and Media Consumption share common linguistic roots, confirmatory factor models specifying them as distinct, correlated factors demonstrate vastly superior goodness-of-fit compared to single-factor nested models. Similarly, the affective dimension (Ethnic Pride) demonstrates statistical distinctiveness from behavioral interaction (Social Interactions), confirming that internal cultural sentiment can remain preserved even when external social interactions necessitate host-culture involvement.

Predictive and Criterion-Related Validity

The ASCR has demonstrated exceptional predictive utility in behavioral consumer research, particularly in the study of food consumption, convenience goods, brand loyalty, and commercial services:

• Traditional vs. Convenience Food Consumption: In the landmark study by Laroche, Kim, and Tomiuk (1998), the ASCR successfully predicted consumption patterns of Italian-Canadians regarding traditional foods (e.g., homemade tomato sauce, traditional cured meats, ethnic specialty baked goods) versus modern convenience foods (e.g., frozen dinners, canned ready-meals). High scores on ethnic identity maintenance were strongly associated with frequent, deliberate consumption of traditional foods and a pronounced psychological resistance to industrialized convenience foods, which were perceived as violating cultural culinary standards and family gathering rituals.
• Advertising Receptivity: Subsequent investigations deploying the ASCR have shown that consumers scoring high on heritage language and ethnic pride exhibit significantly higher recall, positive brand attitudes, and purchase intentions when exposed to culturally targeted advertisements featuring in-group actors and heritage linguistic cues.
• Marketplace Navigation and Service Selection: ASCR scores directly correlate with the patronage of ethnic service providers (e.g., healthcare professionals, legal advisors, financial institutions, specialized grocers), confirming that the instrument effectively forecasts real-world economic decision-making.

Reliability

The internal consistency, composite reliability, and measurement stability of the ASCR have been demonstrated to meet or exceed the rigorous psychometric thresholds established by Nunnally and Bernstein (1994).

Internal Consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha)

Across validation studies involving diverse sample populations—including Italian-Canadians, Greek-Canadians, French-Canadians, and Hispanic-Americans—the ASCR subscales have consistently yielded strong internal consistency estimates:

• Language Use Subscale (Items 1–8): Cronbach’s α coefficients consistently range between .90 and .95, reflecting exceptional homogeneity across communicative domains (home, family, work, and internal thought).
• Media Consumption Subscale (Items 9–14): Cronbach’s α values typically range from .82 to .89, capturing both linguistic media orientation and ethnic media affinity.
• Social Interactions Subscale (Items 15–20): Cronbach’s α coefficients range between .85 and .91, indicating high internal coherence in measuring interpersonal network homophily.
• Ethnic Self-Identification and Pride Subscale (Items 21–25): Cronbach’s α values regularly span .88 to .94, demonstrating superior reliability for the affective and attitudinal dimensions of identity.
• Overall Composite Scale: When utilized as an aggregated index of ethnic identity maintenance, the entire 25-item battery routinely yields an overall reliability coefficient exceeding .93.

Composite Reliability and Variance Extraction

In structural equation modeling analyses, Composite Reliability (CR) values for all four latent constructs surpass the recommended .80 benchmark, typically hovering between .84 and .93. Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values consistently surpass the .50 threshold, establishing that the variance captured by each latent factor substantially exceeds the variance attributable to random measurement error.

Test-Retest Stability

Stability assessments over longitudinal intervals (4 to 8 weeks) among stable adult immigrant cohorts have demonstrated test-retest correlation coefficients (r) ranging from .81 to .89 across the four subscales. The affective Ethnic Pride and Language Use dimensions show especially high temporal stability among adult consumers, whereas Media Consumption displays slight contextual variability based on changing programming availability.

Factor Analysis

The structural dimensionality of the ASCR has been validated through both Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), confirming a robust four-factor first-order structure, or alternatively, a hierarchical second-order model representing generalized Ethnic Identity Maintenance versus Host Culture Adoption.

Exploratory Factor Structure

In initial scale development investigations utilizing principal components analysis and principal axis factoring with orthogonal (Varimax) and oblique (Promax/Oblimin) rotations, items systematically cleanly clustered onto their four hypothesized theoretical dimensions. The four factors routinely account for approximately 65% to 75% of the total explained variance in the item matrix:

• Factor 1 (Language Use): Explains the largest proportion of common variance (typically 30%–38%), with all primary language items exhibiting clean factor loadings ranging from .72 to .89, and minimal cross-loadings (< .25) on social or affective factors.
• Factor 2 (Social Interactions): Accounts for approximately 12%–16% of total variance, with interpersonal homophily items loading between .68 and .86.
• Factor 3 (Ethnic Pride and Identity): Captures roughly 10%–14% of the variance, with subjective pride and cultural preservation items displaying loadings from .70 to .91.
• Factor 4 (Media Consumption): Accounts for 7%–10% of the variance, with broadcast and print media language items loading between .65 and .84.

Confirmatory Factor Analytic (CFA) Fit Indices

Subsequent testing utilizing maximum likelihood estimation in structural equation modeling programs (such as LISREL, AMOS, and EQS) demonstrated that the four-factor correlated model offers superior fit compared to competing unidimensional, two-factor, or null models. Representative fit indices reported across the empirical literature include:

• Chi-Square to Degrees of Freedom Ratio (χ²/df): Typically observed between 1.65 and 2.30, indicating acceptable to excellent parsimonious fit.
• Comparative Fit Index (CFI): Consistently exceeding .92 to .96, well above the conventional .90 threshold.
• Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI / NNFI): Ranging between .91 and .95.
• Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA): Typically falling between .042 and .065 (with 90% confidence intervals bounded below .08), denoting close approximation fit.
• Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR): Consistently remaining below .055.

Measurement Invariance

Multigroup confirmatory factor analyses have substantiated full metric and partial scalar invariance across gender cohorts, generational cohorts (first vs. second generation), and educational strata, confirming that the ASCR measures equivalent psychological constructs across diverse demographic segments without systemic measurement bias.

Instrument / Measurement Tool

The formal technical parameters and operational characteristics of the Acculturation Scale for Consumer Research are structured as follows:

• Instrument Name: Acculturation Scale for Consumer Research (ASCR)
• Alternative Designations in Literature: Laroche et al. Ethnic Identity and Acculturation Scale; Multidimensional Consumer Acculturation Scale
• Primary Authors: Michel Laroche, Chankon Kim, and Marc A. Tomiuk (with contributions from Michael K. Hui and Annamma Joy)
• Primary Field of Administration: Consumer Psychology, Cross-Cultural Marketing, Applied Psychometrics, Behavioral Economics, Sociology of Migration
• Item Inventory: 25 standardized items
• Structural Subscales:
  • Language Use: 8 items (Items 1 to 8)
  • Media Consumption: 6 items (Items 9 to 14)
  • Social Interactions: 6 items (Items 15 to 20)
  • Ethnic Self-Identification / Pride: 5 items (Items 21 to 25)
• Authentic Response Formats:
  • Language Use Items (Items 1–12): 9-point semantic differential / rating scale ranging from 1 = Only Italian [heritage language] to 9 = Only English/French [host language].
  • Social Interaction and Identity Items (Items 13–25): 9-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = Strongly disagree to 9 = Strongly agree.
• Scoring and Directionality:
  • Host-Culture Linguistic/Media Orientation: Derived by calculating the mean score across Items 1–12. High scores (approaching 9) signify complete transition to host-country language and mainstream media, whereas low scores (approaching 1) signify exclusive heritage-language dominance.
  • Heritage Media Engagement: Derived from Items 13 and 14. High scores (approaching 9) reflect active consumption of ethnic-specific media content.
  • Ethnic Social Interaction Homophily: Derived by calculating the mean score across Items 15–20. High scores indicate that social, familial, and community networks are exclusively populated by ethnic in-group peers.
  • Ethnic Self-Identification and Pride: Derived by calculating the mean score across Items 21–25. High scores reflect deep emotional commitment, cultural pride, and active dedication to preserving ancestral traditions.
  • Bidimensional Quadrant Assignment: Researchers frequently split participants at the median or theoretical midpoints across Host Orientation (Items 1–12) versus Ethnic Maintenance (Items 13–25) to classify respondents into Berry’s four quadrants: Integrated / Bicultural (High Host, High Ethnic), Assimilated (High Host, Low Ethnic), Separated / Traditional (Low Host, High Ethnic), and Marginalized (Low Host, Low Ethnic).
• Estimated Completion Time: Approximately 8 to 12 minutes.
• Target Respondent Population: Immigrants, foreign-born nationals, first- and subsequent-generation ethnic minority consumers aged 18 and older.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The developmental and validation trajectory of the Acculturation Scale for Consumer Research was published across a series of peer-reviewed journal articles, culminating prominently in the 1998 publication in the Journal of Consumer Marketing, with earlier structural foundations established in 1996 and 1997 within the Journal of Business Research and Advances in Consumer Research.

• Copyright Ownership: The conceptual framework, empirical scale items, and underlying validation data are copyrighted by the authors (Michel Laroche, Chankon Kim, Marc A. Tomiuk) and the academic publishing entities housing the respective articles (e.g., Emerald Group Publishing for the Journal of Consumer Marketing; Elsevier Science for the Journal of Business Research).
• Fee and Research Usage: The ASCR is accessible free of charge for non-commercial, academic, thesis, and educational research purposes under the standard fair-use scholarly doctrine, provided that proper formal academic citation is rendered in all resulting publications, working papers, and presentations.
• Commercial Applications: Commercial market research agencies, brand consultancies, or corporate entities intending to incorporate the ASCR into proprietary segmentation algorithms, syndicated consumer panels, or commercial diagnostic software should obtain formal permissions or licensing arrangements via the copyright holders or through the John Molson School of Business at Concordia University.
• Adaptation Protocol: In accordance with the authors’ methodological guidelines, researchers examining cultural groups other than Italian-descendant populations are authorized to adapt the ethnic referent bracketed in the items (e.g., substituting “[Italian]” with “[Hispanic],” “[Chinese],” “[Greek],” etc.) and adjusting the host language options to reflect the specific linguistic context under study (e.g., “English/French” in bilingual Canada, “English” in the United States or Australia).

References

• Berry, J. W. (1980). Acculturation as varieties of adaptation. In A. M. Padilla (Ed.), Acculturation: Theory, models and some new findings (pp. 9–25). Westview Press.
• Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology, 46(1), 5–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1997.tb01087.x
• Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104
• Gordon, M. M. (1964). Assimilation in American life: The role of race, religion, and national origins. Oxford University Press.
• Kim, C., Laroche, M., & Tomiuk, M. A. (2001). The effects of ethnic identity and acculturation on contextual price knowledge. Journal of Social Psychology, 141(3), 353–382. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224540109600557
• Laroche, M., Kim, C., & Clarke, M. A. (1997). The effects of ethnicity and language on consumer brand choice: An exploratory study. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 14(3), 251–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8116(97)00007-8
• Laroche, M., Kim, C., Hui, M. K., & Joy, A. (1996). An empirical study of multidimensional ethnic change: The case of the French Canadians in Quebec. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27(1), 114–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022196271008
• Laroche, M., Kim, C., & Tomiuk, M. A. (1998). Italian ethnic identity and its relative effect on the consumption of convenience and traditional foods. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 15(2), 125–151. https://doi.org/10.1108/07363769810210359
• Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
• Oetting, E. R., & Beauvais, F. (1990). Orthogonal cultural identification theory: The cultural identification of minority adolescents. The International Journal of the Addictions, 25(5A), 655–685. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826089009077271
• Park, R. E. (1928). Human migration and the marginal man. American Journal of Sociology, 33(6), 881–893. https://doi.org/10.1086/214592
• Peñaloza, L. (1994). Atravesando fronteras/border crossings: A critical ethnographic exploration of the consumer acculturation of Mexican immigrants. Journal of Consumer Research, 21(1), 32–54. https://doi.org/10.1086/209381
• Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. G. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Nelson-Hall.

Items of the Scale