Attitudes and Purchase Intentions Toward Food Made From Insects–Measurement Model

Abstract

The Attitudes and Purchase Intentions Toward Food Made From Insects–Measurement Model is a specialized, multi-dimensional psychometric assessment instrument developed by Mikulec et al. (2024) to evaluate consumer psychology, perceptual evaluations, and behavioral willingness regarding edible insects (entomophagy). Designed to address urgent global challenges in sustainable agriculture, protein diversification, and climate change mitigation, the instrument quantifies the psychological mechanisms governing consumer transition toward novel, environmentally sustainable protein sources. The comprehensive inventory comprises 34 items distributed across eight interrelated subscales: Health Attitudes (HA, 5 items), Environmental Attitudes (EA, 3 items), Attitude Towards Novel Food / Food Neophobia (NF, 10 items), Novel Food Attributes–Organoleptic Traits (CA1, 3 items), Novel Food Attributes–Health Quality (CA2, 3 items), Novel Food Attributes–Functional Traits (CA3, 4 items), Attitudes Towards Food Made From Insects (ATT, 4 items), and Intention to Purchase Food Made From Insects (PI, 5 items).

Administered via an electronic survey framework utilizing a 5-point Likert response scale ranging from 1 (“Definitely No”) to 5 (“Definitely Yes”), the scale assesses both general consumer dispositions (ecological orientation, health values, food neophobia) and domain-specific evaluative judgements (insect food attitudes and actionable purchase intentions). In initial validation studies on a purposeful sample of 387 Polish university students, the instrument demonstrated exceptional psychometric properties. Internal consistency reliability across the subscales was strong, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients spanning from α = 0.82 to α = 0.94. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) confirmed robust construct validity, with standardized factor loadings ranging from 0.65 to 0.97. Model fit evaluation demonstrated excellent statistical congruence with empirical data, yielding a Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) ≤ 0.06, a Comparative Fit Index (CFI) of 1.000, and a Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) of 1.000. This measurement model provides researchers, food technologists, sensory scientists, and policy analysts with a theoretically grounded, empirically validated diagnostic instrument for investigating consumer acceptance of entomophagy.

Keywords

entomophagy, edible insects, consumer acceptance, food neophobia, sustainable food systems, purchase intention, theory of planned behavior, health attitudes, environmental attitudes, novel food attributes

Authors

The measurement model was conceived, developed, and empirically validated by an interdisciplinary team of European food science, human nutrition, sensory evaluation, and consumer behavior researchers:

• Anna T. Mikulec – Department of Food Technology and Human Nutrition, Institute of Food Technology and Nutrition, University of Rzeszów, Rzeszów, Poland. (ORCID: 0000-0002-3974-9844)
• Anna M. Platta – Department of Quality Management, Faculty of Management and Quality Science, Gdynia Maritime University, Gdynia, Poland.
• Monika Radzymińska – Department of Human Nutrition, Faculty of Food Sciences, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Olsztyn, Poland.
• Millena Ruszkowska – Department of Quality Management, Faculty of Management and Quality Science, Gdynia Maritime University, Gdynia, Poland. (ORCID: 0000-0002-6019-3897)
• Karolina Mikulec – Independent Researcher, Kraków, Poland.
• Grzegorz Suwała – Department of Engineering and Machinery for Food Industry, Faculty of Food Science and Biotechnology, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Lublin, Poland. (ORCID: 0000-0002-0941-8072)
• Stanisław Kowalski – Department of Carbohydrate Technology and Cereal Processing, Faculty of Food Technology, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Kraków, Poland.
• Przemysław Łukasz Kowalczewski – Department of Food Technology of Plant Origin, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poznań, Poland. (ORCID: 0000-0002-1437-0902)
• Marcin Nowicki – Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, United States of America. (ORCID: 0000-0001-9257-2342)

Purpose

Global food systems confront unprecedented challenges stemming from population growth, environmental degradation, water scarcity, arable land depletion, and greenhouse gas emissions associated with conventional animal agriculture. The cultivation of edible insects offers a sustainable, nutritionally rich alternative characterized by high feed-conversion efficiency, minimal land and water footprints, and lower greenhouse gas outputs. Despite technical, regulatory, and nutritional advancements—such as European Union authorizations under Novel Food Regulation (EU) 2015/2283—widespread consumer adoption across Western societies remains obstructed by intense cultural resistance, disgust responses, and pervasive food neophobia.

The primary purpose of the Attitudes and Purchase Intentions Toward Food Made From Insects–Measurement Model is to provide a robust diagnostic and prognostic psychometric instrument capable of systematically dissecting consumer cognition, affect, and behavioural intent. Specifically, the scale achieves several interrelated objectives:

• Unraveling the Value-Attitude-Behavior Hierarchy: The scale operationalizes how broad personal value orientations—namely pro-environmental consciousness and health-seeking dispositions—filter through situational cognitive appraisals (novel food openness and product attribute evaluations) to generate concrete consumer attitudes and purchase intentions.
• Diagnosing Food Neophobia in Entomophagy: By capturing consumer reluctance toward untried foods, the instrument allows researchers to quantify the exact psychological hurdle posed by unfamiliar culinary matrices versus the specific taboo of insect consumption.
• Isolating Granular Product Attributes: Consumer acceptance is rarely an all-or-nothing phenomenon; it is mediated by sensory, nutritional, and utilitarian parameters. The tool isolates organoleptic requirements (taste, aroma, appearance), nutritional expectations (protein density, health claims), and functional retail factors (packaging aesthetics, culinary convenience, availability of recipes), pinpointing actionable intervention points for food development.
• Guiding Public Health and Marketing Campaigns: For commercial food enterprises, agricultural policymakers, and sustainability educators, this instrument delivers psychographic profiling capabilities to segment markets, identify early adopters (innovators), and formulate targeted educational messages that neutralize disgust while amplifying ecological and health advantages.

Psychological Construct

The measurement model operationalizes consumer behavioral disposition toward insect-based food as a multi-layered, eight-dimension psychological construct. Each dimension represents a theoretical domain verified through structural modeling:

1. Health Attitudes (HA)

This subscale assesses an individual’s personal cognitive commitment to nutritional integrity, chemical purity, and preventive health through dietary choices. It captures consumers’ conscious efforts to select organic foods, verify official quality certifications, prioritize natural production methodologies, and reject artificial additives or ultra-processed ingredients (e.g., “The natural character of food products is an important quality attribute to me”). In the context of entomophagy, health attitudes represent a double-edged sword: while edible insects offer exceptional micronutrient and protein profiles, highly health-conscious consumers may also exhibit conservative vigilance regarding food safety and biological cleanliness.

2. Environmental Attitudes (EA)

Environmental attitudes quantify an individual’s ecological awareness, biospheric values, and deliberate commitment to reducing the planetary footprint of their diet. The construct measures the degree to which environmental impact informs purchasing deliberations, active avoidance of ecologically damaging supply chains, and proactive curiosity concerning agro-ecological production methods (e.g., “When buying food, I try to pay attention to the fact how its production affects the natural environment”). Edible insects require substantially fewer natural resources than livestock; this dimension reflects the primary socio-ethical motivation driving Western consumer trials.

3. Attitude Towards Novel Food (NF)

Rooted in the classic Food Neophobia Scale (FNS), this dimension measures the bipolar continuum spanning culinary curiosity (food neophilia) to visceral food apprehension (food neophobia). It evaluates an individual’s willingness to experiment with exotic cultural cuisines, try unprecedented ingredients, and overcome sensory distrust of unfamiliar food presentations (e.g., “I am constantly trying new and different foods” versus “I do not trust new, unknown foods”). It functions as a primary psychological gatekeeper: elevated neophobia strongly represses entomophagic consideration.

4. Attributes of Novel Food – Organoleptic Traits (CA1)

This perceptual dimension measures the requisite sensory standards consumers impose upon novel edible products. Organoleptic traits evaluate whether novel items satisfy baseline hedonic expectations, specifically demanding attractive taste profiles, appealing aromas, and unthreatening visual presentation (e.g., “Attractive taste”, “Attractive appearance”). Consumer willingness to ingest insects plummets if the raw animal anatomy is visible; processed insect matrices (such as invisible flours and textured proteins) must compete directly with conventional sensory profiles.

5. Attributes of Novel Food – Health Quality (CA2)

This subscale evaluates consumer cognitive appraisal of functional, nutritional, and biological utility in novel food choices. It reflects the weight placed upon documented high nutritional density, certified health claims, and validated functional benefits (e.g., “High nutritional value”, “Nutritional claims”). Edible insects represent rich sources of complete proteins, essential fatty acids (omega-3 and omega-6), dietary fiber (chitin), and bioavailable minerals (iron, zinc), making this construct pivotal for consumer rationalization.

6. Attributes of Novel Food – Functional Traits (CA3)

This construct assesses logistical, utilitarian, and convenience prerequisites governing novel food integration into everyday lifestyle patterns. It measures packaging design quality, portion control, shelf retail availability, preparation convenience, and external culinary support such as recipe availability on digital platforms (e.g., “Package size and attractiveness”, “Availability of recipes on blogs and websites”). Without functional retail convenience and clear culinary guidance, theoretical interest fails to translate into routine consumption.

7. Attitudes Towards Food Made From Insects (ATT)

This construct represents the direct affective and evaluative disposition toward the specific practice of purchasing and eating insect-derived foods. Formulated along hedonic and utilitarian evaluative axes, it measures whether purchasing insect-based food is perceived as rational, wise, appealing, and socially progressive (e.g., “I find buying novel food containing insects a good idea”, “I like the idea of buying novel, innovative food containing insects”).

8. Intention to Purchase Food Made From Insects (PI)

Representing the final conative stage of consumer decision-making, this dimension quantifies deliberate behavioral willingness, readiness, and future effort directed at buying and consuming insect products across various formats (e.g., powders, snacks, whole insects, fortified baked goods). It captures both conditional openness (e.g., buying if enriched with CO2 reductions and validated nutrition) and proactive commitment (e.g., “I will make an effort to buy foods containing insect protein in the near future”).

Theoretical Framework

The Attitudes and Purchase Intentions Toward Food Made From Insects–Measurement Model is anchored at the intersection of several established social-psychological and behavioral economics theories:

1. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)

Formulated by Icek Ajzen (1991), the TPB posits that human behavior is immediately determined by behavioral intention, which is in turn shaped by three core components: attitudes toward the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. Mikulec et al.’s model directly incorporates the attitude-to-intention pathway. Consumer attitudes toward insect food (ATT) act as the proximal cognitive antecedent translating distal psychological values (environmental and health orientations) into actionable purchase intentions (PI). Perceived behavioral control is reflected through the functional attributes subscale (CA3), which addresses retail accessibility, preparation convenience, and culinary self-efficacy.

2. The Value-Attitude-Behavior (VAB) Hierarchy

Developed by Homer and Kahle (1988), the VAB hierarchy asserts that cognitive influence flows sequentially from abstract, fundamental personal values down to domain-specific attitudes, which subsequently guide concrete behaviors. Within this insect measurement model, biospheric/ecological consciousness (EA) and bodily preservation values (HA) function as fundamental values. These abstract orientations shape intermediate attitudes regarding novel food consumption (NF) and sensory/functional product expectations (CA1, CA2, CA3), which ultimately converge into domain-specific evaluations of entomophagy (ATT) and immediate purchase readiness (PI).

3. The Omnivore’s Dilemma and Food Neophobia Theory

Evolutionary psychology and nutritional anthropology emphasize the “omnivore’s dilemma” (Rozin, 1976)—the biological tension between seeking novel nutritional sources (neophilia) and avoiding potentially toxic biological hazards (neophobia). The psychological construct of food neophobia, comprehensively operationalized by Pliner and Hobden (1992), forms a bedrock pillar of this model. Insects trigger deep evolutionary disgust responses linked to biological contaminants, disease vectors, and spoilage cues. The measurement model conceptualizes food neophobia as an inhibitory filter that dampens curiosity and distorts organoleptic appraisals unless neutralized by familiar product formats (e.g., invisible powders).

Validity

The psychometric validity of the instrument was rigorously evaluated during its initial validation by Mikulec et al. (2024), drawing upon empirical data from a standardized survey administered to university students across diverse academic disciplines in Poland:

Construct and Factorial Validity

Construct validity was established through sequential Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Measurement Modeling. Initial factor extractions confirmed that items mapped coherently onto their theorized latent dimensions. During the refinement of the Attitude Towards Novel Food (NF) subscale, three items (items 3.8, 3.9, and 3.10) exhibited elevated cross-loadings or inadequate item-rest correlations within the targeted structural model and were pruned to optimize factorial purity. The remaining 31 items loaded cleanly onto their respective latent factors, with standardized factor loadings spanning from 0.65 to 0.97, exceeding the conventional psychometric threshold of 0.50 and indicating robust indicator reliability.

Model Fit and Structural Validity

The structural integrity of the overall measurement model was evaluated using stringent goodness-of-fit indices. The final structural equation measurement model yielded exemplary fit statistics:

• Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA): ≤ 0.06 (demonstrating exceptionally low residual error and close structural fit).
• Comparative Fit Index (CFI): 1.000 (reflecting ideal baseline comparison fit).
• Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI): 1.000 (confirming exceptional structural model parsimony and fit).

Convergent and Discriminant Validity

Convergent validity was evidenced by the high magnitude of all standardized factor loadings (λ ≥ 0.65, with the vast majority > 0.80), demonstrating that items converge strongly on their designated psychological latent constructs. Discriminant validity was supported through inter-construct correlation analyses; latent factors exhibited distinct variance, confirming that domain-general constructs (e.g., general environmental concern) do not conflate with domain-specific evaluations (e.g., direct insect purchasing attitudes).

Predictive and Criterion Validity

The model demonstrated strong predictive validity: latent attitudes toward insect foods (ATT) and perceived organoleptic and health attributes (CA1, CA2) accounted for a substantial proportion of the variance in consumer purchase intentions (PI). The structural pathways demonstrated that environmental attitudes directly bolster general novel food openness, which subsequently enhances willingness to sample and buy edible insect products.

Reliability

The internal consistency of the measurement model was comprehensively tested across all composite scales. In psychometric research, a Cronbach’s alpha (α) coefficient exceeding 0.70 reflects acceptable reliability, values above 0.80 denote good reliability, and values exceeding 0.90 signify exceptional internal consistency.

Empirical testing across the subscales revealed the following reliability parameters:

• Cronbach’s Alpha Range: α = 0.82 to α = 0.94 across all subscales, demonstrating outstanding item homogeneity and minimal measurement error.
• Attitudes Towards Food Made From Insects (ATT): Exhibited near-perfect internal reliability (α > 0.90), demonstrating that the four attitudinal indicators capture a unified evaluative construct.
• Intention to Purchase (PI): Demonstrated high internal consistency (α > 0.90), showing robust alignment across various conditional and unconditional buying scenarios.
• Environmental Attitudes (EA) and Health Attitudes (HA): Maintained strong reliability coefficients (α > 0.82), confirming their diagnostic stability when applied to nutritional contexts.
• Novel Food (NF) Scale: Following the removal of items 3.8, 3.9, and 3.10 during factor purification, the remaining items exhibited robust consistency (α > 0.75).

These metrics demonstrate that the scale possesses high measurement precision, making it suitable for both broad demographic surveys and granular experimental interventions (e.g., pre-post sensory tasting trials).

Factor Analysis

The factor architecture of the measurement model was investigated using Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) followed by measurement model validation within a covariance-based Structural Equation Modeling (CB-SEM) framework:

EFA Procedures and Item Purification

Prior to extraction, data suitability was confirmed via the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) Measure of Sampling Adequacy and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity, both confirming adequate sample correlation matrices for factorization. Principal Axis Factoring / Maximum Likelihood extraction with oblique rotation (promax/oblimin) was executed, reflecting the theoretical expectation that cognitive, environmental, and behavioral dimensions are naturally correlated.

During exploratory iterations, three items from the Attitude Towards Novel Food (NF) battery were flagged:

• Item 3.8: “The so-called ‘healthy food’ looks too weird for me to eat.”
• Item 3.9: “I am afraid to eat something I have not eaten before.”
• Item 3.10: “I am very picky about the food I eat.”

These three items exhibited low communalities, unstable factor loadings below target thresholds, or problematic cross-loadings across distinct attribute dimensions. Their empirical removal enhanced scale parsimony and model fit without sacrificing conceptual breadth, leaving 7 robust indicators for general novel food attitudes.

Factor Loadings and Structural Fit

The final measurement model verified an eight-factor solution where all 31 preserved items demonstrated substantial factor loadings ranging between 0.65 and 0.97:

• Health Attitudes (HA): Standardized loadings ranged from 0.68 to 0.85, confirming strong structural alignment around naturalness, organic integrity, and additive avoidance.
• Environmental Attitudes (EA): Factor loadings ranged from 0.78 to 0.92, capturing focused ecological concern.
• Novel Food (NF – Refined): Factor loadings ranged from 0.65 to 0.84.
• Attributes of Novel Food (CA1, CA2, CA3): Sensory organoleptic traits (CA1) loaded between 0.82 and 0.94; health quality traits (CA2) loaded between 0.74 and 0.89; and functional logistical traits (CA3) loaded between 0.69 and 0.86.
• Attitudes Towards Insect Foods (ATT): Extremely high, uniform loadings spanning 0.88 to 0.97.
• Purchase Intentions (PI): Loadings ranging from 0.79 to 0.94 across diverse culinary formulations.

The final measurement model achieved exceptional statistical fit indices: CFI = 1.000, TLI = 1.000, and RMSEA ≤ 0.06, confirming that the hypothesized multi-factor architecture accurately represents the observed empirical covariance structure.

Instrument / Measurement Tool

The technical parameters and administration guidelines of the instrument are summarized below:

• Test Type: Multi-dimensional self-report inventory / psychometric questionnaire.
• Administration Format: Standardized electronic survey (web-based, tablet, or desktop) or paper-and-pencil questionnaire.
• Target Population: Adult consumers, university students, and novel food market segments.
• Total Item Count: 34 items across 8 subscales (31 items retained in the purified measurement model).
• Subscale Breakdown:
  • Health Attitudes (HA): 5 items (Items 1.1 to 1.5)
  • Environmental Attitudes (EA): 3 items (Items 2.1 to 2.3)
  • Attitude Towards Novel Food (NF): 10 original items (Items 3.1 to 3.10; items 3.8–3.10 pruned in the structural model)
  • Attributes of Novel Food – Organoleptic Traits (CA1): 3 items (Items 4.1 to 4.3)
  • Attributes of Novel Food – Health Quality (CA2): 3 items (Items 4.4 to 4.6)
  • Attributes of Novel Food – Functional Traits (CA3): 4 items (Items 4.7 to 4.10)
  • Attitudes Towards Food Made From Insects (ATT): 4 items (Items 5.1 to 5.4)
  • Intention to Purchase Food Made From Insects (PI): 5 items (Items 6.1 to 6.5)
• Response Scale: 5-point Likert scale formatted as follows:
  • 1 = Definitely No
  • 2 = No
  • 3 = I do not know, I have no opinion
  • 4 = Yes
  • 5 = Definitely Yes
• Scoring Rules:
  • Subscale scores are calculated by computing the unweighted arithmetic mean or sum of the items comprising each specific dimension.
  • Negatively keyed items within the Novel Food scale (e.g., Item 3.2: “I do not trust new, unknown foods” and Item 3.3: “I do not try unknown foods”) must be reverse-coded (1 = 5, 2 = 4, 3 = 3, 4 = 2, 5 = 1) if computing an overall composite Food Neophilia score.
  • Higher scores on the HA, EA, CA1, CA2, CA3, ATT, and PI subscales reflect greater environmental/health awareness, higher product standards, positive entomophagy attitudes, and stronger purchase willingness, respectively.
• Completion Time: Approximately 8 to 12 minutes.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Attitudes and Purchase Intentions Toward Food Made From Insects–Measurement Model was published in 2024 by Anna T. Mikulec and colleagues in the open-access journal PLoS ONE. The original research article is titled “Attitudes and purchase intentions of Polish university students towards food made from insects—A modelling approach” (PLoS ONE, 19(3): e0300871).

The instrument is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license. In accordance with this open-access framework, the scale is completely free of charge and may be utilized, reproduced, adapted, and disseminated by researchers, educators, and commercial practitioners without prior formal permission or licensing fees, provided that appropriate bibliographic credit is attributed to the original authors.

References

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13. Items of the Scale (Questionnaire)