Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS)

Abstract

The Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS) is a premier self-report psychometric instrument engineered to assess racial identity development among African American adolescents and adults. Grounded in the conceptual revisions of the Expanded Nigrescence Model (Nigrescence Recycling and the expanded Nigrescence typology formulated by Cross and Vandiver), the CRIS operationalizes racial identity attitudes as multidimensional, complex psychological profiles rather than obsolete linear stage constructs. The instrument comprises 40 items evaluated on a 7-point Likert-type response scale ranging from 0 (Strongly disagree) to 6 (Strongly agree). Psychometrically, the CRIS evaluates six distinct theoretical subscales: Pre-Encounter Assimilation (PA), Pre-Encounter Miseducation (PM), Pre-Encounter Self-Hatred (PSH), Immersion-Emersion Anti-White (IEAW), Internalization Afrocentricity (IA), and Internalization Multiculturalist Inclusive (IMCI), alongside 10 non-scored filler items designed to buffer against response bias and social desirability.

Extensive empirical investigations across university, community, and adult clinical populations establish robust internal consistency reliability across all six subscales, with Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega coefficients typically falling between .70 and .90 across diverse demographic cohorts. Structural validity evaluated via confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) consistently demonstrates exceptional model fit indices (CFI > .90, RMSEA < .05), confirming the multidimensional latent structure across independent validation samples. Convergent and discriminant validity are evidenced by theoretically congruent associations with self-esteem, psychological well-being, depressive symptomatology, ethnic minority racial socialization, coping strategies under perceived systemic racism, and multicultural worldview attitudes. As a cornerstone of multicultural psychology, counseling assessment, and socio-developmental research, the CRIS serves as a scientifically rigorous psychometric tool for delineating the complex nuances of African American racial identity formation, providing critical diagnostic and empirical utility.

Keywords

Cross Racial Identity Scale, CRIS, Nigrescence Theory, William E. Cross Jr., Racial Identity Development, African American Psychology, Pre-Encounter, Immersion-Emersion, Internalization, Psychometrics, Factor Structure, Multicultural Counseling

Authors

The Cross Racial Identity Scale was developed and standardized through collaborative academic leadership by prominent psychometricians and counseling psychologists specializing in racial-cultural identity development:

• Beverly J. Vandiver, Ph.D. — Professor of Psychology and Human Development, Department of Counselor Education, Counseling Psychology, and Rehabilitation Services, The Pennsylvania State University (presently Professor at Western Michigan University and The Ohio State University). Co-founder of the CRIS development project.
• William E. Cross, Jr., Ph.D. — Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Psychology and Urban Education at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York (CUNY) and Professor Emeritus at the University of Denver. Foundational architect of Nigrescence Theory.
• Frank C. Worrell, Ph.D. — Professor of School Psychology and Faculty Director of the Academic Talent Development Program at the University of California, Berkeley; Past President of the American Psychological Association (APA). Lead author of the CRIS Technical Manual.
• P. Eula Fhagen-Smith (Fhagen), Ph.D. — Associate Professor of Psychology, Department of Psychology, Wheaton College, Massachusetts. Specialist in adolescent racial identity development and Nigrescence lifespan trajectories.
• Janet K. Swim, Ph.D. — Professor of Psychology, Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University. Expert on prejudice, racism, and social psychology.
• Linda D. Caldwell, Ph.D. — Professor Emerita of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Management, The Pennsylvania State University. Research methodology collaborator.

Institutional contact and correspondence regarding the instrument may be directed through the CRIS technical working group and primary literature: Beverly J. Vandiver (Department of Counseling Psychology, Western Michigan University) or Frank C. Worrell (Graduate School of Education, University of California, Berkeley, 2121 Berkeley Way, Berkeley, CA 94720-1670).

Purpose

The Cross Racial Identity Scale was constructed to address severe psychometric limitations that characterized earlier operationalizations of Nigrescence Theory, notably the original Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS-B) developed by Janet Helms and colleagues. Although the RIAS was widely employed in counseling and social psychology throughout the 1980s and 1990s, recurring methodological evaluations uncovered critical psychometric deficiencies, including low internal consistency reliability on specific subscales, unstable exploratory factor structures, item cross-loadings, and poor conceptual differentiation of multidimensional developmental postures.

The explicit purpose of developing the CRIS was to establish an empirically validated, methodologically uncompromising instrument capturing the Expanded Nigrescence Model formulated by Cross and Vandiver (2001). This revised theoretical architecture abandoned the linear, unidirectional stage model in favor of a multidimensional attitude orientation, asserting that individuals can simultaneously possess varying levels of diverse racial identity attitudes. The CRIS was engineered to provide researchers, school psychologists, university mental health professionals, and clinical psychologists with a nuanced measurement tool capable of evaluating:

• Identity Salience and Content: Disentangling whether an individual considers race to be an organizing cognitive schema versus holding an identity anchored strictly in national citizenship, universalist humanism, or ethnic heritage.
• Racial Self-Hatred vs. Miseducation: Differentiating between African Americans who internalize societal stereotypes and misinformation regarding Black intellectual or behavioral capacities (Miseducation) versus individuals suffering from acute, affectively laden disparagement of their own Blackness (Self-Hatred).
• Affective Reactions to Systemic Whiteness: Measuring isolated hyper-reactive hostility toward European Americans and dominant cultural institutions (Anti-White attitudes), separate from proactive, self-actualizing identification with African culture.
• Proactive and Inclusive Internalized Identities: Differentiating between strong, Afrocentric-centered worldviews and broader, multiculturalist paradigms that concurrently honor Black self-determination alongside coalition-building across diverse ethnic, cultural, and sexual minority identities.

In educational, counseling, and organizational settings, the CRIS facilitates individualized clinical case conceptualization. By moving away from monolithic interpretations of Black identity, clinicians can understand how clients interpret racial stress, navigate institutional microaggressions, process racial trauma, and construct ego defenses, thereby personalizing culturally competent interventions.

Psychological Construct

The construct assessed by the CRIS is racial identity attitude orientation within the African American experience. Rather than treating racial identity as a unitary continuum or an invariant developmental sequence, the Expanded Nigrescence Model posits that racial identity comprises distinct, interrelated ideological clusters distributed across three overarching historical Nigrescence stages: Pre-Encounter, Immersion-Emersion, and Internalization. The CRIS specifically operationalizes six core subscale dimensions across these stages, each representing a qualitatively distinct socio-cognitive orientation:

1. Pre-Encounter Assimilation (PA)

Pre-Encounter Assimilation describes an ideological orientation wherein an individual prioritizes national, civic identity over racial or ethnic affiliation. A person scoring high on the PA subscale conceptualizes self-identity predominantly through the lens of being “American,” assigning minimal subjective importance to race. Race is viewed as a superficial characteristic that should not hinder social assimilation, economic opportunity, or interpersonal relationships. An example item reflecting this construct is: “I think of myself primarily as an American, and seldom as a member of a racial group.”

2. Pre-Encounter Miseducation (PM)

Pre-Encounter Miseducation evaluates the extent to which an individual accepts, endorses, and reiterates historical, mainstream societal stereotypes and negative narratives regarding African Americans. Unlike self-hatred, miseducation reflects cognitive socialization and societal conditioning: the individual views systemic socio-economic disparagement or crime among Black populations as self-inflicted through cultural failure, lack of initiative, or insufficient personal responsibility. An illustrative item includes: “Blacks place more emphasis on having a good time than on hard work.”

3. Pre-Encounter Self-Hatred (PSH)

Pre-Encounter Self-Hatred captures profound, internalized racial self-rejection, visceral discomfort with phenotypic Blackness, and personal distress stemming from membership in the African American racial group. This construct represents psychological vulnerability, diminished ego integrity, and depressive affect related to racial status, where the individual experiences acute self-blame or personal revulsion regarding being Black. A defining item is: “When I look in the mirror at my Black image, sometimes I do not feel good about what I see.”

4. Immersion-Emersion Anti-White (IEAW)

Immersion-Emersion Anti-White measures intense, affectively charged hostility, contempt, and global antipathy directed toward European Americans and dominant societal structures. Originally conceptualized as an initial, reactive phase following an “Encounter” with racism, high scores on this dimension represent a rigid dichotomous worldview in which White people are seen as inherently oppressive and the antithesis of Black liberation. A representative item states: “I hate the White community and all that it represents.”

5. Internalization Afrocentricity (IA)

Internalization Afrocentricity measures a secure, proactive, and positive cultural identity anchored in African philosophy, historical consciousness, and cultural paradigms. Distinct from anti-White sentiments, this dimension reflects an affirmative, empowering commitment to Afrocentric values, community solidarity, and structural self-reliance as the premier vehicles for psychological emancipation and collective problem-solving. An exemplary item is: “Black people cannot truly be free until our daily lives are guided by Afrocentric values and principles.”

6. Internalization Multiculturalist Inclusive (IMCI)

Internalization Multiculturalist Inclusive captures a mature, highly integrated racial identity in which the individual fully embraces their Black heritage while simultaneously respecting, validating, and actively engaging with other marginalized racial, ethnic, cultural, and sexual minority communities (e.g., Native Americans, Latinos, Asian Americans, Jewish communities, and LGBTQ+ populations). An illustrative item is: “I believe it is important to have both a Black identity and a multicultural perspective, which is inclusive of everyone.”

Filler Items

The scale contains 10 filler items evaluating general non-racial attitudes, religious importance (e.g., “My relationship with God plays an important role in my life”), and general social commentary. These items mask the explicit multidimensional profiling intentions of the test, attenuating social desirability response biases.

Theoretical Framework

The conceptual foundation of the CRIS is rooted in Nigrescence Theory, originally formulated by William E. Cross, Jr. during the height of the Black Power and Civil Rights movements (Cross, 1971). The term Nigrescence derives from French, translating broadly as “the process of becoming Black.” Cross’s foundational 1971 model outlined a five-stage linear trajectory representing the transformation of an individual’s racial awareness from a Eurocentric self-concept to a secure, self-actualized Afrocentric or internalized Black identity:

1. Pre-Encounter: Eurocentric perspective, racial denial, assimilationist orientation, or anti-Black worldview.
2. Encounter: A startling, destabilizing interpersonal or institutional experience of racism that shatters the pre-encounter cognitive schema.
3. Immersion-Emersion: An intense, polarized transition characterized by deep immersion into African American history and culture, concurrent with visceral anti-White hostility (Immersion), followed by emotional leveling and rational reflection (Emersion).
4. Internalization: Integration of a secure, inner-directed, confident Black identity characterized by ideological flexibility, decreased defensiveness, and non-racist perspectives.
5. Internalization-Commitment: Long-term behavioral and political commitment toward social justice and the ongoing liberation of African Americans.

In response to two decades of empirical validation studies and theoretical developments in social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979), Cross collaborated with Beverly J. Vandiver, Frank C. Worrell, and P. Eula Fhagen-Smith to formulate the Expanded Nigrescence Model (Cross & Vandiver, 2001; Worrell, Vandiver, & Cross, 2004). This conceptual revision abandoned the assumption of an invariant, linear step-wise progression. Instead, the model recognized that individuals may settle into stable, distinct identity profiles or engage in “Nigrescence Recycling” throughout their lifespans in response to evolving life experiences.

Under the Expanded Nigrescence Model, each overarching stage was differentiated into distinct attitude dimensions:

• Pre-Encounter: Bifurcated into Assimilation (race-neutral/low salience), Miseducation (internalized societal stereotyping), and Self-Hatred (affective personal anti-Blackness).
• Immersion-Emersion: Clarified as comprising two distinct facets: Anti-White attitudes and Pro-Black involvement. The CRIS specifically operationalizes the Anti-White component to measure reactive outgroup hostility.
• Internalization: Differentiated into distinct manifestations of mature identity, including Afrocentricity, Multiculturalist Inclusive attitudes, and Biculturalist perspectives.

The CRIS operationalizes this expanded framework, providing a structural mechanism to map individual variations in racial salience, valence, and social ideology.

Validity

The psychometric validity of the Cross Racial Identity Scale has been comprehensively demonstrated across multiple independent adult and collegiate samples, utilizing advanced exploratory and confirmatory modeling techniques.

Construct and Structural Validity

The initial validation by Vandiver et al. (2002) evaluated the scale across multiple university samples. Exploratory factor analyses (EFA) utilizing iterated principal-axis extraction with Promax rotation reliably extracted the six hypothesized latent factors, with every item demonstrating high loadings (> .45) on its designated theoretical factor and minimal cross-loadings (< .20). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) performed on independent validation cohorts confirmed superior model fit for the hypothesized six-factor structure compared to alternative one-factor, two-factor, or three-stage models. Subsequent CFA research by Worrell and Watson (2008) in a large independent sample ($N = 621$) demonstrated exceptional structural fit: $\chi^2 / df < 2.5$, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = .93, Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) = .92, and Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = .048 (90% CI [.044, .052]).

Convergent and Discriminant Validity

Empirical evidence for convergent and discriminant validity is established through predicted associations with diverse psychological constructs:

• Self-Esteem: In accordance with theoretical postulates, the Pre-Encounter Self-Hatred (PSH) subscale correlates negatively with global self-esteem measured via the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale ($r = -.45$ to $-.52, p < .001$), while Internalization Multiculturalist Inclusive (IMCI) demonstrates significant positive correlations with self-esteem and general psychological well-being ($r = .25$ to $.35, p < .01$).
• Psychological Distress and Depressive Symptoms: High scores on PSH and PM are significant predictors of elevated Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) scores and heightened vulnerability to perceived microaggressions. Conversely, IA and IMCI serve as psychological buffers that attenuate the detrimental impact of perceived racial discrimination on mental health.
• Racial Socialization: The CRIS subscales exhibit expected convergent associations with the Scale of Racial Socialization for African American Adolescents (SORS-A). Individuals exposed to active cultural pride socialization score significantly higher on Internalization Afrocentricity and Multiculturalist Inclusive subscales.
• Outgroup Attitudes: The Immersion-Emersion Anti-White (IEAW) subscale correlates strongly with measures of generalized racial resentment, while demonstrating complete divergence from universal social openness scales. In contrast, the IMCI subscale correlates robustly with the Miville-Guzman Universality-Diversity Scale (MGUDS), establishing strong discriminant validation between pro-Black Afrocentric commitment and anti-White outgroup antagonism.

Cluster Profiles and Typological Validity

Using hierarchical and non-hierarchical cluster analysis, Worrell, Vandiver, Fhagen-Smith, and Cross (2006) identified seven distinct, replicable racial identity profile clusters across three independent samples: Low Race Salience, Assimilationist, Anti-White, Internalized, Afrocentric, Multiculturalist, and Immersion. These profiles demonstrate that the CRIS captures real-world, multidimensional configurations of racial identity rather than isolated unidimensional traits.

Reliability

The CRIS demonstrates exceptional internal consistency reliability and temporal stability across diverse African American populations, spanning university undergraduates, community adults, and clinical cohorts.

Internal Consistency

Across the primary standardization and subsequent validation literature (Vandiver et al., 2002; Vandiver et al., 2004; Worrell et al., 2004; Worrell et al., 2006; Hubbard, 2011), Cronbach’s alpha ($lpha$) coefficients consistently meet or exceed the standard psychometric benchmarks for psychological assessment tools ($lpha ge .70$):

• Pre-Encounter Assimilation (PA): $lpha = .83\text{ to } .85$ (Vandiver et al., 2002; Worrell et al., 2006); range in cross-validation literature $.70\text{ to } .85$ (Hubbard, 2011).
• Pre-Encounter Miseducation (PM): $lpha = .77\text{ to } .89$ (Vandiver et al., 2002; Worrell et al., 2006); range in cross-validation literature $.77\text{ to } .84$ (Hubbard, 2011).
• Pre-Encounter Self-Hatred (PSH): $lpha = .70\text{ to } .88$ (Vandiver et al., 2002; Worrell et al., 2006); range in cross-validation literature $.70\text{ to } .89$ (Hubbard, 2011).
• Immersion-Emersion Anti-White (IEAW): $lpha = .83\text{ to } .90$ (Vandiver et al., 2002; Worrell et al., 2006); range in cross-validation literature $.81\text{ to } .89$ (Hubbard, 2011).
• Internalization Afrocentricity (IA): $lpha = .82\text{ to } .85$ (Vandiver et al., 2002; Worrell et al., 2006); range in cross-validation literature $.80\text{ to } .85$ (Hubbard, 2011).
• Internalization Multiculturalist Inclusive (IMCI): $lpha = .76\text{ to } .86$ (Vandiver et al., 2002; Worrell et al., 2006); range in cross-validation literature $.74\text{ to } .85$ (Hubbard, 2011).

Evaluation of composite reliability and McDonald’s omega ($\omega_h$) coefficients routinely yields values spanning .78 to .91, establishing that measurement error is minimal and that all items contribute robustly to their designated latent constructs.

Test-Retest Stability

Longitudinal stability evaluated across test-retest intervals ranging from four to eight weeks has documented stability coefficients between $r_{tt} = .72$ and $r_{tt} = .86$ across all six subscales. These findings confirm that while racial identity attitudes can adapt over longer developmental periods through Nigrescence recycling, CRIS scores possess the requisite psychometric stability necessary for rigorous cross-sectional and longitudinal research.

Factor Analysis

The latent structural integrity of the CRIS was developed through a rigorous multi-phase psychometric pipeline combining Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and multi-sample Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA).

Exploratory Factor Structure

During scale construction, Vandiver et al. (2000, 2002) administered an initial pool of over 90 candidate items to African American participants. Item-level factor analyses utilizing principal-axis extraction with oblique (Promax) rotation systematically isolated six primary factors with eigenvalues exceeding 1.5. Items with factor loadings below .40, communalities below .30, or cross-loadings exceeding .25 were progressively eliminated. The resulting 30 target items (5 items per subscale) demonstrated clean, simple structure:

• Factor 1 (IEAW): Standardized loadings ranged from .68 to .89, capturing direct rejection and hatred of White society.
• Factor 2 (PA): Loadings ranged from .62 to .84, reflecting prioritization of American identity over racial affiliation.
• Factor 3 (PM): Loadings ranged from .55 to .79, reflecting endorsement of negative stereotypes regarding Black ambition and work ethic.
• Factor 4 (PSH): Loadings ranged from .58 to .85, loading on items measuring internalized shame and mirror distress regarding Black identity.
• Factor 5 (IA): Loadings ranged from .59 to .82, highlighting Afrocentric philosophy and cultural consciousness.
• Factor 6 (IMCI): Loadings ranged from .52 to .78, loading on coalition-building, bicultural balance, and inclusive solidarity with other marginalized groups.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Model Fit

Confirmatory factor analytic investigations have continually corroborated the six-factor correlated model. Worrell and Watson (2008) conducted a comprehensive CFA to test the Expanded Nigrescence Model against rival structural representations:

• Model 1: Single-Factor Model (all items loading on a general racial identity dimension) yielded completely unacceptable fit indices ($\chi^2 / df > 8.5$, CFI = .48, RMSEA = .135).
• Model 2: Three-Factor Stage Model (collapsing Pre-Encounter, Immersion, and Internalization) yielded inadequate fit ($\chi^2 / df > 4.8$, CFI = .71, RMSEA = .094).
• Model 3: Six-Factor Correlated Model (the theoretical CRIS structure) achieved optimal fit across all evaluated indices ($\chi^2 / df = 2.12$, CFI = .94, TLI = .93, SRMR = .046, RMSEA = .044).

Inter-factor correlations in CFA models confirmed that while the subscales represent distinct constructs, they correlate in theoretically anticipated directions. For example, Pre-Encounter Miseducation correlates positively with Pre-Encounter Self-Hatred ($r pprox .42, p < .001$), while Internalization Afrocentricity exhibits mild, non-significant correlations with Immersion-Emersion Anti-White attitudes ($r pprox .08, p > .05$), empirically supporting Cross’s assertion that loving Blackness is distinct from hating Whiteness.

Instrument / Measurement Tool

The CRIS is formatted as a standardized, paper-and-pencil or computer-administered self-report psychological questionnaire. Below are the structural parameters and administration specifications:

• Test Type: Multidimensional Self-Report Rating Scale.
• Construct Assessed: Racial Identity Attitudes under the Expanded Nigrescence Model.
• Target Population: African American / Black adolescents (ages 14+) and adults.
• Total Item Count: 40 items (30 scored items organized across 6 subscales, plus 10 un-scored filler items).
• Subscale Item Allocation (5 items each):
  • Pre-Encounter Assimilation (PA): Items 2, 9, 18, 26, 34
  • Pre-Encounter Miseducation (PM): Items 3, 12, 20, 28, 36
  • Pre-Encounter Self-Hatred (PSH): Items 4, 10, 17, 25, 39
  • Immersion-Emersion Anti-White (IEAW): Items 6, 14, 23, 30, 38
  • Internalization Afrocentricity (IA): Items 7, 13, 22, 31, 37
  • Internalization Multiculturalist Inclusive (IMCI): Items 5, 16, 24, 33, 40
  • Filler Items (Unscored): Items 1, 8, 11, 15, 19, 21, 27, 29, 32, 35
• Response Format: 7-point Likert-type scale coded as follows:
  • 0 = Strongly disagree
  • 1 = Disagree
  • 2 = Somewhat disagree
  • 3 = Neither agree nor disagree
  • 4 = Somewhat agree
  • 5 = Agree
  • 6 = Strongly agree
• Administration Time: Approximately 10 to 15 minutes.
• Scoring Procedure:
  • There are no reverse-coded items among the 30 scored scale items.
  • Subscale scores are obtained by calculating the arithmetic mean of the 5 designated items for that subscale (sum of subscale item responses divided by 5).
  • Subscale means range from 0.00 to 6.00. Higher mean scores reflect greater endorsement of that specific racial identity attitude.
  • A total composite score is never computed, as the subscales capture distinct, non-additive ideological orientations. Clinical interpretation relies on the profile pattern across the six distinct subscale means or cluster assignments.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Cross Racial Identity Scale was first introduced in standardized form in 2000 (Vandiver et al., 2000), followed by the first edition of its technical manual and comprehensive peer-reviewed validation in 2001 and 2002. The expanded Cross Racial Identity Scale: Technical Manual (2nd edition) was officially published in 2004 by Frank C. Worrell, Beverly J. Vandiver, and William E. Cross, Jr.

Copyright and Permissibility: The instrument, technical manual, and item content are copyrighted by the authors (© 2000, 2004 Beverly J. Vandiver, William E. Cross, Jr., & Frank C. Worrell). The authors have historically made the CRIS accessible without royalty or licensing fees for non-profit scholarly, doctoral dissertation, and academic research purposes upon formal request. Commercial use, reproduction in for-profit software, or incorporation into commercial psychological testing batteries requires formal written licensing permission from the copyright holders. Prospective researchers and clinicians seeking copies of the technical manual, normative profiles, or permission to administer the CRIS can contact the authors through university faculty offices (e.g., UC Berkeley Graduate School of Education or Western Michigan University).

References

Cross, W. E., Jr. (1971). The Negro-to-Black conversion experience: Toward a psychology of Black liberation. Black World, 20(9), 13–27.

Cross, W. E., Jr., & Vandiver, B. J. (2001). Nigrescence theory and measurement: Introducing the Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS). In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (2nd ed., pp. 371–393). Sage Publications.

Hubbard, R. R. (2011). Examining the construct validity of the Cross Racial Identity Scale (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (UMI No. 3474773).

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Brooks/Cole.

Vandiver, B. J., Cross, W. E., Jr., Fhagen-Smith, P. E., Worrell, F. C., Swim, J. K., & Caldwell, L. D. (2000). The Cross Racial Identity Scale. State College, PA: Authors.

Vandiver, B. J., Worrell, F. C., Fhagen-Smith, P. E., & Cross, W. E., Jr. (2002). Validating the Cross Racial Identity Scale. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49(1), 71–85. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.49.1.71

Vandiver, B. J., Worrell, F. C., Fhagen-Smith, P. E., & Cross, W. E., Jr. (2004). Reliability and structural validity of Cross Racial Identity Scale scores in a sample of African American adults. Journal of Black Psychology, 30(4), 489–505. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798404268285

Worrell, F. C., & Watson, S. (2008). A confirmatory factor analysis of Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS) scores: Testing the Expanded Nigrescence Model. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 68(6), 1041–1058. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164408315268

Worrell, F. C., Vandiver, B. J., & Cross, W. E., Jr. (2004). The Cross Racial Identity Scale: Technical manual (2nd ed.). Berkeley, CA: Authors.

Worrell, F. C., Vandiver, B. J., Fhagen-Smith, P. E., & Cross, W. E., Jr. (2006). Generalizing Nigrescence profiles: Cluster analyses of Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS) scores in three independent samples. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(4), 519–547. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000005278452

13. Items of the Scale (Questionnaire)