Drinking Motive Questionnaire (DMQ)

Abstract

The Drinking Motive Questionnaire (DMQ), including its widely utilized revised operationalization, the Drinking Motive Questionnaire-Revised (DMQ-R) developed by M. Lynne Cooper in 1994, is the preeminent psychometric assessment instrument designed to measure the underlying motivational determinants of alcohol consumption across adolescents, emerging adults, and clinical populations. Rooted fundamentally in the motivational model of alcohol use conceptualized by W. Miles Cox and Eric Klinger (1988, 1990), the DMQ-R operationalizes alcohol consumption as a goal-directed behavior regulated by the expected affective and instrumental outcomes of drinking. The instrument comprises 20 items structured across four conceptually distinct, empirically validated latent dimensions: Social Motives (positive, externally generated reinforcement), Coping Motives (negative, internally generated reinforcement), Enhancement Motives (positive, internally generated reinforcement), and Conformity Motives (negative, externally generated reinforcement). Each dimension consists of five items evaluated on a standardized frequency continuum ranging from 1 (never) to 6 (almost always), or alternatively a 5-point relative frequency format ranging from 1 (never/almost never) to 5 (almost always/always).

Extensive psychometric investigations conducted globally across diverse demographic groups demonstrate that the DMQ-R possesses superior construct validity, robust internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha and McDonald’s omega coefficients routinely spanning 0.82 to 0.92 across subscales), robust factorial invariance across gender, age, and cross-cultural boundaries, and exceptional criterion-related and predictive validity. Specifically, Social and Enhancement motives reliably correlate with normative social drinking and recreational heavy episodic drinking, whereas Coping and Conformity motives consistently function as robust longitudinal predictors of hazardous consumption, alcohol-related negative consequences, alcohol use disorder (AUD) symptomatology, and comorbid psychiatric conditions, such as major depressive disorder and anxiety disorders. This comprehensive article delivers an exhaustive, psychometrically rigorous examination of the DMQ, covering its historical development, operational architecture, theoretical foundations, psychometric parameters, structural validity, clinical diagnostic utilities, and complete authentic survey inventory.

Keywords

Drinking Motive Questionnaire, DMQ-R, alcohol motives, motivational model of alcohol use, psychometrics, factor analysis, coping motives, enhancement motives, social motives, conformity motives, addictive behaviors, alcohol use disorder, psychological assessment.

Authors

The primary architect of the four-factor Drinking Motive Questionnaire-Revised is M. Lynne Cooper, Ph.D., Curators’ Distinguished Professor Emerita of Psychological Sciences at the University of Missouri, Columbia. Dr. Cooper is an internationally recognized expert in developmental psychopathology, personality processes, health-risk behaviors, and structural equation modeling in addictive disorders.

The foundational antecedent to the DMQ-R was the original 15-item, three-factor Drinking Motives Questionnaire introduced by Michael W. Farber, Stephen M. Kahan, and William M. Bruehl (1980), and subsequently modified by M. Lynne Cooper, Michael R. Frone, Marcia Russell, and M. L. Mudar (1992). The 1994 conceptualization by Cooper expanded the instrument into a theoretically balanced 20-item, four-factor orthogonal-crossing taxonomy by formally differentiating avoidance of social rejection (conformity) from personal emotional regulation (coping).

Subsequent international adaptations and psychometric extensions have been spearheaded by prominent addiction researchers, most notably Emmanuel Kuntsche, Ph.D. (Centre for Alcohol Policy Research, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia, and Addiction Switzerland, Lausanne), Ronald Knibbe, Ph.D. (Maastricht University, Netherlands), and Gerhard Gmel, Ph.D. (Addiction Switzerland and Lausanne University Hospital). Inquiries regarding the original proprietary research protocols of the DMQ-R are generally directed to the Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Drinking Motive Questionnaire is to identify, quantify, and delineate the subjective functional reasons that drive an individual to consume alcoholic beverages. Unlike descriptive behavioral indices that measure merely the volumetric frequency, quantity, or trajectory of alcohol intake (e.g., standard drinks per week, frequency of binge drinking), the DMQ interrogates the psychological why of drinking behavior. Grounded in functional behaviorism and cognitive-motivational theory, the questionnaire proceeds from the axiomatic assumption that alcohol consumption represents a purposive, instrumental act executed to attain desired affective shifts or to avert undesired psychological and interpersonal states.

From an applied clinical perspective, the DMQ serves several vital diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic functions:

• Differential Phenotyping of Problem Drinking: The DMQ enables clinicians and researchers to distinguish between normative, developmentally ubiquitous social-recreational drinking and highly pathological, self-medicating patterns of alcohol misuse. For instance, two individuals exhibiting identical high-quantity volumetric alcohol consumption may demonstrate radically distinct clinical trajectories: one motivated predominantly by social celebration and enhancement, and the other driven by visceral coping mechanisms to blunt affective distress. The latter carries significantly elevated probabilities of developing chronic alcohol dependence, neurocognitive compromise, and severe psychosocial dysfunction.
• Personalized Intervention and Treatment Planning: In cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), motivational interviewing (MI), and relapse prevention protocols, identifying a client’s baseline drinking motives directs therapeutic targets. Elevated coping motives signal the urgent clinical necessity of developing distress tolerance, cognitive restructuring, and emotional regulation skills. Elevated conformity motives demand social assertiveness training, refusal self-efficacy development, and peer network restructuring. Conversely, individuals motivated heavily by enhancement often benefit from behavioral activation involving alternative, non-chemical sources of environmental reward, novelty, and physiological sensation.
• Predictive Epidemiology and Etiological Research: In population-level longitudinal studies, the DMQ serves as a critical prospective biomarker of future alcohol-related morbidity. Decades of prospective data demonstrate that high scores on coping motives during adolescence reliably forecast escalating drinking problems, academic attrition, legal complications, and substance use disorders throughout early and middle adulthood, even after controlling for baseline drinking volume and familial genetic vulnerability.
• Harm Reduction and Brief Motivational Interventions: Campus-wide and community-based preventative initiatives, such as the Brief Alcohol Screening and Intervention for College Students (BASICS), utilize DMQ profiles to provide normative feedback. Highlighting discrepancies between personal drinking motives and actual behavioral consequences facilitates cognitive dissonance, fostering readiness to change without requiring immediate, total abstinence.

Psychological Construct

The Drinking Motive Questionnaire measures a multidimensional psychological construct situated at the confluence of personality psychology, cognitive appraisal theory, and behavioral pharmacology. In psychometric terms, “drinking motives” are conceptualized as the final common psychological pathway through which distal variables—such as genetic predispositions, personality traits (e.g., neuroticism, sensation seeking, impulsivity, extraversion), sociodemographic environments, and general outcome expectancies—are translated into the proximal decision to drink in specific contexts.

The conceptual architecture of the DMQ-R organizes drinking motives across two independent, intersecting crossed conceptual axes: Source of Reinforcement (Internal versus External) and Valence of Reinforcement (Positive versus Negative). Crossing these two dimensions generates a 2 × 2 matrix comprising four distinct latent subscales:

1. Social Motives (Positive / External)

Social motives represent drinking behaviors undertaken to obtain positive external reinforcement, specifically the facilitation of social affiliation, interpersonal cohesion, conviviality, and collective celebration. Individuals endorsing high social motives drink because alcohol is viewed as an intrinsic social lubricant that enhances camaraderie, enlivens gatherings, and marks shared festive rituals. Representative items include “Because it helps you enjoy a party” and “Because it makes social gatherings more fun.” Psychometrically, social motives represent the most universally endorsed drinking motive across community and adolescent samples, typically correlating moderately with extraversion, gregariousness, and situational consumption, while exhibiting weak or non-significant associations with chronic alcohol-induced pathology.

2. Coping Motives (Negative / Internal)

Coping motives involve drinking to achieve negative internal reinforcement, specifically the reduction, alleviation, or avoidance of aversive emotional, psychological, or physiological states. This motive reflects an attempt to manage negative affect, including dysphoria, generalized anxiety, existential dread, loneliness, anger, and interpersonal tension. Representative scale items include “To forget your worries,” “Because it helps you when you feel depressed or nervous,” and “To cheer up when you are in a bad mood.” In clinical psychopathology, coping motives represent the most dangerous motivational phenotype; they systematically mediate the relationship between psychological distress (e.g., post-traumatic stress, depressive symptomatology) and chronic alcohol dependence, characterized by solitary drinking, tolerance escalation, and rapid relapse following detoxification.

3. Enhancement Motives (Positive / Internal)

Enhancement motives reflect alcohol use intended to secure positive internal reinforcement, specifically the direct amplification of positive emotional states, exhilaration, euphoria, sensory pleasure, and subjective intoxication. Individuals with high enhancement motives consume alcohol to manipulate their internal neurochemical state to experience subjective “rushes,” heightened excitement, and novel hedonic experiences. Items operationalizing this dimension include “Because you like the feeling,” “Because it’s exciting,” and “To get high.” Psychometrically, enhancement motives are robustly linked to the personality trait of sensation seeking, behavioral approach system (BAS) sensitivity, and impulsivity. Clinically, enhancement motives are potent prospective predictors of high-quantity, rapid-intake episodic drinking (“binge drinking”) and acute intoxication-related hazards, including accidental trauma, driving under the influence, and acute alcohol poisoning.

4. Conformity Motives (Negative / External)

Conformity motives describe alcohol consumption aimed at achieving negative external reinforcement, specifically the avoidance of social censure, peer rejection, ostracism, or the perceived social penalties of abstinence. Driven by social anxiety, low self-efficacy, and high compliance tendencies, individuals drinking for conformity motives consume alcohol not necessarily for hedonic reward or intrinsic affective modulation, but to establish a defensive social shield. Exemplary items include “Because your friends pressure you to drink,” “So that others won’t kid you about not drinking,” and “So you won’t feel left out.” While aggregate volumetric consumption among conformity-motivated individuals is frequently lower than that of enhancement or social drinkers, these individuals suffer disproportionate acute psychological distress, social alienation, and situational embarrassment, demonstrating elevated vulnerability to peer-driven hazardous consumption in coercive environments.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical bedrock of the DMQ is the Motivational Model of Alcohol Use formulated by W. Miles Cox and Eric Klinger (1988, 1990). Cox and Klinger integrated neurobiological mechanisms, learning theory, and cognitive-decision models into an overarching framework proposing that the final decision to consume alcohol rests on an individual’s affective expectations regarding the subjective consequences of drinking versus not drinking.

According to this model, human behavior is intrinsically organized around the pursuit of emotional incentives. Chemical substances, specifically central nervous system depressants like ethanol, exert profound modulatory actions on neurochemical systems governing reward (dopaminergic pathways in the nucleus accumbens) and distress reduction (GABAergic potentiation and glutamatergic inhibition). Consequently, individuals learn to anticipate how alcohol alters their affective trajectory along two distinct vectors:

• Affective Valence (Positive vs. Negative): An individual may drink to achieve a positive affective shift (positive reinforcement: experiencing pleasure, reward, euphoria) or to eliminate an aversive affective state (negative reinforcement: extinguishing anxiety, numbing emotional pain, removing interpersonal pressure).
• Environmental Locus (Internal vs. External): The anticipated outcome may reside entirely within the individual’s subjective phenomenological state (internal: altering emotional and physiological feeling states) or within the transactional external social sphere (external: modifying interpersonal dynamics, group acceptance, or celebratory interactions).

Prior to Cooper’s (1994) formalization, early instruments (such as the original DMQ by Farber et al., 1980) conflated external and internal negative reinforcers into an undifferentiated “coping/escape” construct. Cooper recognized that drinking to modulate endogenous emotional despair (internal coping) represents an entirely different psychological and developmental mechanism than drinking to appease a domineering peer collective (external conformity). By applying a strict two-by-two factorial crossing (Internal/External × Positive/Negative), Cooper generated the fourfold motivational model that operationalizes the full spectrum of Cox and Klinger’s theoretical matrix.

Furthermore, Cooper’s model operates within modern Social Cognitive Theory and Expectancy Theory (Albert Bandura; Alan Marlatt). In this context, outcome expectancies (e.g., “Alcohol makes people talkative”) represent abstract cognitive beliefs stored in long-term memory, whereas drinking motives represent the proximal, personal valuations and decisions to act upon those expectancies in real time (e.g., “I am drinking tonight specifically to feel less nervous in this room”). Longitudinal structural equation models consistently demonstrate that drinking motives fully mediate the psychological pathway from distal personality dispositions and general alcohol expectancies to actual drinking patterns and associated negative consequences.

Validity

The Drinking Motive Questionnaire and its revised form (DMQ-R) have been subjected to decades of rigorous psychometric validation across multiple cultures, languages, and developmental strata, consistently establishing remarkable validity indices:

Construct and Structural Validity

Construct validity is evidenced by the persistent emergence of the hypothesized four-factor configuration across diverse populations. Confirmatory factor analytic (CFA) investigations globally demonstrate that the four-factor model provides a significantly superior fit to the data compared to unidimensional, two-factor (internal vs. external, or positive vs. negative), or three-factor models. Studies evaluating the four-factor structure report excellent fit indices across adolescent cohorts (Cooper, 1994; Kuntsche et al., 2006), college populations, adult epidemiological panels, and clinical populations suffering from concurrent substance dependence and affective illness.

Convergent Validity

Convergent validity is robustly documented through significant, theory-congruent correlations with validated measures of personality, psychopathology, and cognitive expectancies:

• Enhancement Motives: Correlate strongly with measures of sensation seeking, extraversion, impulsivity, behavioral activation (BAS), and positive alcohol expectancies regarding arousal and euphoria ($r = 0.45$ to $0.68$, $p < 0.001$).
• Coping Motives: Correlate highly with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), neuroticism, perceived stress scales, and negative affectivity measures ($r = 0.40$ to $0.62$, $p < 0.001$).
• Social Motives: Correlate strongly with sociability, affiliation needs, social alcohol expectancies, and frequency of social engagement ($r = 0.50$ to $0.72$, $p < 0.001$).
• Conformity Motives: Correlate with social anxiety scales, peer pressure susceptibility inventories, and fear of negative evaluation ($r = 0.35$ to $0.55$, $p < 0.001$).

Predictive and Criterion-Related Validity

The predictive validity of the DMQ is considered a gold standard in addiction psychometrics. Multiple prospective and ecological momentary assessment (EMA) studies show that the four subscales differentially and uniquely predict discrete behavioral criteria:

• Social Motives predict frequency of drinking in social settings and normative, moderate alcohol consumption without predicting severe clinical dependence.
• Enhancement Motives uniquely predict volumetric heavy episodic drinking, peak blood alcohol concentrations (BAC), and intoxication-related externalizing problems (e.g., physical altercations, reckless driving).
• Coping Motives prospectively predict solitary drinking, heavy episodic drinking, chronic tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, DSM-5 Alcohol Use Disorder diagnoses, and the maintenance of dependence over multi-year follow-up intervals, even after controlling for baseline consumption quantity.
• Conformity Motives uniquely predict low average volume but disproportionately high acute interpersonal and psychological consequences relative to the actual volume consumed.

Discriminant Validity

Discriminant validity between subscales is demonstrated by factor correlation matrices where inter-factor correlations, while statistically significant due to a shared general propensity toward drinking, remain within moderate bounds ($r = 0.20$ to $0.60$). Average Variance Extracted (AVE) analyses consistently show that the variance captured by each latent construct exceeds the shared variance between constructs, proving that the subscales are empirically non-redundant.

Reliability

The psychometric reliability of the DMQ-R has been confirmed across hundreds of independent empirical investigations worldwide. Both internal consistency and temporal stability metrics satisfy the most stringent psychometric criteria for clinical and research assessments.

Internal Consistency

In Cooper’s (1994) seminal validation study involving adolescents ($N = 1,243$), Cronbach’s alpha ($lpha$) coefficients demonstrated exemplary internal consistency across all four subscales:

• Social Motives: $lpha = 0.85$ to $0.88$
• Enhancement Motives: $lpha = 0.84$ to $0.88$
• Coping Motives: $lpha = 0.81$ to $0.86$
• Conformity Motives: $lpha = 0.82$ to $0.85$

Subsequent cross-national evaluations have replicated these findings. For instance, Kuntsche, Knibbe, Gmel, and Engels (2006) examined a massive sample of Swiss adolescents ($N = 5,614$) and established McDonald’s omega ($\omega$) and alpha coefficients ranging from $0.83$ to $0.91$ across language versions (German, French, and Italian). Gilson et al. (2013) validated the instrument in an older adult demographic ($N = 646$), demonstrating internal consistency coefficients of $lpha = 0.89$ for Social, $lpha = 0.86$ for Coping, $lpha = 0.84$ for Enhancement, and $lpha = 0.82$ for Conformity.

Test-Retest Reliability and Temporal Invariance

Test-retest reliability evaluations over intervals spanning two weeks to six months yield intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) typically ranging between $0.70$ and $0.85$, reflecting the psychometric position of drinking motives as moderately stable cognitive-motivational traits that possess situational sensitivity. In longitudinal panel designs tracking individuals from late adolescence into adulthood, structural stability coefficients over multi-year intervals remain high ($r > 0.60$), verifying that individual rank-order differences in primary motivational phenotypes are enduring psychological orientations.

Factor Analysis

The factorial structure of the DMQ-R has been extensively validated using both Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). In the seminal work by Cooper (1994), EFA conducted on half of the developmental sample revealed four distinct factors with eigenvalues substantially exceeding unity, accounting for over 60% of the total variance. Factor loadings of individual items onto their designated primary latent factors were robust, with primary loadings uniformly ranging between $0.55$ and $0.86$, while cross-loadings onto non-target factors remained below $0.25$.

Subsequent CFA conducted on the validation split-half confirmed that the four-factor oblique model provided exceptional fit to the empirical data, yielding:

• Comparative Fit Index (CFI): $ge 0.94$ to $0.98$
• Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI): $ge 0.93$ to $0.97$
• Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA): $le 0.045$ to $0.060$ ($90%\text{ CI } [0.040, 0.065]$)
• Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR): $le 0.040$ to $0.055$

Alternative nested structural configurations have been systematically tested against the four-factor oblique model:

• Unidimensional Model: All 20 items loading onto a single general drinking factor yields poor fit ($ ext{CFI} < 0.65$,$ ext{RMSEA} > 0.14$), verifying that drinking motivation is intrinsically heterogeneous.
• Two-Factor Valence Model (Positive vs. Negative): Combining Social with Enhancement and Coping with Conformity yields unacceptable fit ($ ext{CFI} < 0.78$,$ ext{RMSEA} > 0.11$).
• Two-Factor Locus Model (Internal vs. External): Combining Enhancement with Coping and Social with Conformity yields inadequate fit ($ ext{CFI} < 0.75$,$ ext{RMSEA} > 0.12$).
• Hierarchical / Bi-Factor Models: Recent modern psychometric investigations utilizing bi-factor CFA architectures demonstrate that while a general drinking motivation factor explains broad common variance, the four specific orthogonal group factors retain substantial, reliable, and unique variance necessary for predicting discrete behavioral outcomes.

Furthermore, multigroup confirmatory factor analyses (MGCFA) have definitively established full or partial measurement invariance (configural, metric, and scalar invariance) across genders, diverse ethnic groups, adolescent versus collegiate age brackets, and diverse geographical contexts spanning North America, Europe, Latin America, and Australasia.

Instrument / Measurement Tool

The Drinking Motive Questionnaire-Revised is a structured, standardized, self-report psychological inventory. Below is the operational overview of the instrument’s structural and scoring parameters:

• Instrument Designation: Drinking Motive Questionnaire-Revised (DMQ-R; Cooper, 1994).
• Format & Administration: Standardized self-administered pencil-and-paper or digital/online survey; takes approximately 5 to 8 minutes to complete.
• Total Item Count: 20 items.
• Stem Question: The scale opens with an explicit instructional prompt directing respondents: “Listed below are 20 reasons people might give for drinking alcoholic beverages. Thinking of all the times you drink, how often would you say you drink for each of the following reasons?” (or the operationalized stem: “YOU DRINK …” or “How often did you drink…”).
• Response Scale: Respondents evaluate each statement on a standardized rating continuum indicating relative frequency of drinking for that reason. In the authentic operationalizations, the scoring utilizes either a 6-point relative frequency format:
  • 1 = Never
  • 2 = Almost never
  • 3 = Some of the time
  • 4 = About half of the time
  • 5 = Most of the time
  • 6 = Almost always

  (Alternatively, a 5-point scale is utilized in certain protocol variations: 1 = Never/almost never, 2 = Seldom, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Often, 5 = Almost always/always).

• Subscale Composition: The 20 items are divided into four balanced 5-item subscales:
  • Enhancement Motives: Items 7, 9, 10, 13, 18
  • Social Motives: Items 3, 5, 11, 14, 16
  • Conformity Motives: Items 2, 8, 12, 19, 20
  • Coping Motives: Items 1, 4, 6, 15, 17
• Scoring Algorithm: Each subscale score is computed by calculating the arithmetic mean of its constituent 5 items (yielding a dimensional score between 1.0 and 6.0) or by summing raw item scores (yielding a sum score between 5 and 30 per subscale). No items are reverse-coded. Higher scores indicate greater frequency of drinking for that specific motivational determinant. Profile scoring comparing standard deviations against normative reference groups is routinely utilized in clinical contexts to identify dominant motivational risk phenotypes.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The original four-factor revised operationalization of the Drinking Motive Questionnaire was published by Dr. M. Lynne Cooper in 1994 in the American Psychological Association journal Psychological Assessment. The questionnaire is considered an open-access psychometric instrument for non-commercial, educational, and academic research purposes. No licensing fees or proprietary access royalties are required to administer the scale in clinical non-profit or empirical university investigations, provided the original author and validation publications are appropriately acknowledged and cited.

Researchers intending to modify items, translate the scale into languages other than those already validated, integrate the questionnaire into commercial diagnostic platforms, or utilize it within revenue-generating interventions or pharmaceutical trials must seek written authorization from the primary developer, Dr. M. Lynne Cooper, or obtain appropriate permissions through the American Psychological Association Rights & Permissions office.

References

• Cooper, M. L. (1994). Motivations for alcohol use among adolescents: Development and validation of a four-factor model. Psychological Assessment, 6(2), 117–128. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.6.2.117
• Cooper, M. L., Frone, M. R., Russell, M., & Mudar, P. (1995). Drinking to regulate positive and negative emotions: A motivational model of alcohol use. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 990–1005. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.990
• Cooper, M. L., Russell, M., Skinner, J. B., & Windle, M. (1992). Development and validation of a three-dimensional measure of drinking motives. Psychological Assessment, 4(2), 123–132. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.4.2.123
• Cox, W. M., & Klinger, E. (1988). A motivational model of alcohol use. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97(2), 168–180. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.97.2.168
• Cox, W. M., & Klinger, E. (1990). Incentive motivation, affective change, and alcohol use: A model. In W. M. Cox (Ed.), Why people drink: Parameters of alcohol as a reinforcer (pp. 291–314). Gardner Press.
• Farber, P. D., Kahan, M. W., & Bruehl, W. M. (1980). A factor-analytic study of reasons for drinking: Issues of content and construct validity. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 41(11), 1073–1085. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsa.1980.41.1073
• Fischer, J., & Corcoran, K. J. (2007). Drinking Motive Questionnaire (DMQ). In Measures for clinical practice and research: A sourcebook (4th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 507–509). Oxford University Press.
• Gilson, K. M., Bryant, C., Bei, B., Komiti, A., Jackson, H., & Judd, F. (2013). Validation of the Drinking Motives Questionnaire (DMQ) in older adults. Addictive Behaviors, 38(5), 2196–2202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.01.021
• Kuntsche, E., & Kuntsche, S. (2009). Development and validation of the Drinking Motive Questionnaire Revised Short Form (DMQ-R SF). Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 38(6), 899–908. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410903258967
• Kuntsche, E., Knibbe, R., Gmel, G., & Engels, R. (2005). Why do young people drink? A review of drinking motives. Clinical Psychology Review, 25(7), 841–861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2005.06.002
• Kuntsche, E., Knibbe, R., Gmel, G., & Engels, R. (2006). Replication and validation of the Drinking Motive Questionnaire Revised (DMQ-R, Cooper, 1994) among adolescents in Switzerland. European Addiction Research, 12(3), 161–168. https://doi.org/10.1159/000092118

13. Items of the Scale (Questionnaire)