Locus of Causality for Exercise Scale (LCE)

Abstract

The Locus of Causality for Exercise Scale (LCE) is a brief, psychometrically sound, self-report psychological instrument designed to assess an individual’s perceived locus of causality (PLOC) regarding their participation in exercise and physical activity. Rooted in Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and Richard deCharms’ conceptual distinction between experiencing oneself as an “Origin” versus a “Pawn,” the LCE evaluates the degree to which an individual perceives their exercise behavior to be self-initiated and autonomously driven (an internal perceived locus of causality) versus compelled, coerced, or driven by internal or external obligations (an external perceived locus of causality). The scale comprises three concise items rated on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (“Strongly disagree”) to 7 (“Strongly agree”). Items 2 and 3 are reverse-scored, allowing researchers and clinicians to derive a composite index where higher scores reflect greater relative autonomy and an internal locus of causality.

Extensive psychometric investigations across athletic cohorts, community fitness participants, and clinical populations—such as overweight individuals participating in exercise-on-prescription schemes—demonstrate that the LCE possesses robust structural validity, acceptable internal consistency reliability (with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients typically ranging between .74 and .84), and meaningful construct validity. The unidimensional factor structure has been confirmed via confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), displaying excellent model fit indices and high standardized factor loadings. Furthermore, the LCE demonstrates strong convergent and predictive validity through significant correlations with constructs such as perceived competence, psychological need satisfaction, intrinsic exercise motivation, positive affective states post-exercise, and long-term behavioral adherence. As a parsimonious assessment tool, the LCE overcomes respondent burden while maintaining rigorous psychometric fidelity, making it widely applicable in epidemiological investigations, clinical trials, and exercise referral interventions.

Keywords

Locus of Causality for Exercise Scale, LCE, perceived locus of causality, self-determination theory, exercise motivation, intrinsic motivation, autonomy, behavioral adherence, psychometrics, exercise psychology

Authors

The Locus of Causality for Exercise Scale was developed by David Markland, PhD, Professor of Exercise Psychology at the School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, Bangor University, Wales, United Kingdom, in collaboration with colleagues including Lew Hardy, PhD.

David Markland has been a leading figure in the operationalization and measurement of motivational regulations within physical activity contexts. His research program focuses on the application of Self-Determination Theory to health-related exercise adoption, adherence, and behavioral change counseling. Academic inquiries regarding the instrument, its theoretical underpinnings, or authorization for clinical adaptations can be addressed to the School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, Bangor University, Gwynedd, LL57 2PZ, United Kingdom.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Locus of Causality for Exercise Scale (LCE) is to quantify where an individual locates the initiating source or driving force behind their physical activity engagement. In physical activity promotion, understanding why individuals exercise is as critical as assessing how often or intensely they engage in exercise. Decades of behavioral research indicate that superficial compliance driven by external mandates, guilt, or social pressure typically results in elevated attrition rates, whereas autonomous engagement driven by personal interest and volition predicts sustained physical activity habits over time.

In clinical and public health contexts, such as exercise-on-prescription schemes or lifestyle interventions for overweight and obese patients, the LCE serves as a rapid diagnostic and evaluative tool. Healthcare practitioners and behavioral change specialists utilize the instrument to:

• Assess initial motivational orientations before commencing an exercise intervention.
• Track shifts in perceived locus of causality over the course of structured exercise programs.
• Identify participants who perceive their exercise regimen as an imposition or “bind,” allowing for targeted motivational interviewing or autonomy-supportive interventions.
• Evaluate the efficacy of autonomy-supportive physical activity climates fostered by personal trainers, physiotherapists, or group exercise leaders.

In research domains, the LCE provides an efficient alternative to lengthy multidimensional inventories (such as the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire or the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory). Its parsimony makes it particularly advantageous in complex multivariate field studies, randomized controlled trials (RCTs), and longitudinal panel surveys where questionnaire length must be minimized to prevent respondent fatigue and data attrition.

Psychological Construct

The central psychological construct measured by the LCE is the Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC) within the specific behavioral domain of exercise. The concept of PLOC was initially introduced by Richard deCharms in 1968 and later integrated by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan into Self-Determination Theory. PLOC describes a person’s subjective perception of whether their actions originate from within the self (an internal perceived locus of causality, or I-PLOC) or from forces external to the self (an external perceived locus of causality, or E-PLOC).

Internal Perceived Locus of Causality (I-PLOC)

When an individual operates with an internal perceived locus of causality, they experience themselves as the primary initiator and author of their behavior—what deCharms termed an “Origin.” In the context of exercise, individuals with an I-PLOC engage in physical movement because they choose to do so based on personal interest, enjoyment, inherent satisfaction, or complete alignment with their core values and identity. Exercise is experienced as an expression of personal agency and volition rather than a duty or requirement.

External Perceived Locus of Causality (E-PLOC)

Conversely, an individual with an external perceived locus of causality experiences themselves as a “Pawn,” acting in response to pressures that lie outside their autonomous volition. In the domain of exercise, this can manifest as extrinsic compliance (exercising to satisfy a physician, avoid family criticism, or obtain tangible rewards) or introjected pressure (exercising out of guilt, shame, or a compulsive feeling that one “ought to” or “has to” work out). In this state, exercise is perceived as a burdensome demand or an unavoidable chore.

Continuum Structure

The LCE conceptualizes PLOC as a continuous unidimensional spectrum. By combining items that tap into pure intrinsic enjoyment (Item 1) with reverse-scored items that capture introjected compulsion (Item 2) and perceived imposition or burden (Item 3), the resulting composite score reflects an individual’s overall position along this continuum. A high average score reflects an uncompromised internal locus of causality, whereas a low average score reflects an externalized, heteronomous motivational state.

Theoretical Framework

The Locus of Causality for Exercise Scale is theoretically embedded in Self-Determination Theory (SDT), predominantly drawing from two of its mini-theories: Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) and Organismic Integration Theory (OIT).

Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)

Cognitive Evaluation Theory focuses on the psychological processes that foster or undermine intrinsic motivation. CET posits that interpersonal events and structures (such as rewards, communications, feedback, and constraints) that conduce toward feelings of competence during action can enhance intrinsic motivation only when accompanied by a perceived internal locus of causality. Markland (1999) empirically verified this tenet in exercise environments using the LCE, demonstrating that perceived physical competence enhances intrinsic motivation primarily when an individual maintains an internal locus of causality. If an individual feels competent at an activity but perceives their engagement as externally mandated, high competence alone fails to promote genuine intrinsic motivation.

Organismic Integration Theory (OIT)

Organismic Integration Theory delineates a continuum of behavioral regulations ranging from amotivation, through external regulation, introjected regulation, identified regulation, and integrated regulation, up to intrinsic motivation. PLOC serves as the underlying psychological axis across this continuum. Non-autonomous regulations (external and introjected) share an external perceived locus of causality, characterized by perceived coercion, pressure, and ego-involvement. In contrast, autonomous regulations (identified, integrated, and intrinsic) share an internal perceived locus of causality, characterized by perceived choice, congruence, and personal endorsement. The LCE captures the fundamental tension between these two broad motivational poles in a concise three-item metric.

Validity

The construct, convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity of the LCE have been substantiated across multiple empirical studies in diverse exercise environments.

Construct and Factorial Validity

The structural integrity of the LCE was initially demonstrated by Markland and Hardy (1997) during psychometric investigations evaluating operational concerns in the assessment of intrinsic motivation. Confirmatory factor analytic investigations have repeatedly affirmed that the three items load strongly onto a single common factor representing perceived locus of causality. Because the three items address distinct facets of volition—volitional preference versus perceived obligation, and free choice versus feeling bound—the scale effectively captures the breadth of the construct without introducing redundant item phrasing.

Convergent and Discriminant Validity

Convergent validity has been established by examining the LCE’s associations with established SDT scales. The LCE correlates strongly and positively with the Interest/Enjoyment subscale of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI; $r \approx .65$ to $.78$) and the Relative Autonomy Index (RAI) derived from the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ and BREQ-2; $r \approx .60$ to $.72$). Conversely, the LCE demonstrates significant negative correlations with external regulation ($r \approx -.45$ to $-.58$) and introjected regulation ($r \approx -.38$ to $-.52$), confirming that higher scores reflect the absence of external or internal compulsion.

Predictive and Criterion Validity

In clinical trials and observational studies, LCE scores have demonstrated meaningful predictive validity regarding behavioral and affective outcomes:

• Exercise Adherence: In studies of exercise referral schemes (e.g., Edmunds, Ntoumanis, & Duda, 2007; Markland & Tobin, 2010), higher baseline and mid-intervention LCE scores significantly predicted long-term attendance and physical activity maintenance at 3- and 6-month follow-ups.
• Psychological Well-Being: Longitudinal data from weight-management trials (e.g., Silva et al., 2008, 2010) demonstrated that increases in internal locus of causality measured by the LCE were accompanied by significant improvements in body image, self-esteem, and subjective vitality, alongside reductions in exercise-related anxiety.
• Interaction with Perceived Competence: Markland (1999) demonstrated criterion-related moderating effects: the regression path from perceived competence to intrinsic exercise interest was significant only among individuals scoring high on the LCE, confirming the theoretical proposition that competence fuels intrinsic motivation only within an internal locus of causality.

Reliability

Despite its parsimonious three-item composition, the Locus of Causality for Exercise Scale displays adequate to strong internal consistency across varied demographic and clinical cohorts.

Internal Consistency Reliability

In initial psychometric evaluations conducted by Markland (1999) among adult exercise participants, the scale yielded a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of $\alpha = .81$. Subsequent evaluations across independent cohorts have consistently met or exceeded standard psychometric benchmarks for short scales ($ge .70$):

• Edmunds, Ntoumanis, & Duda (2007): In a longitudinal study of overweight and obese patients enrolled in a primary care exercise-on-prescription scheme, the LCE demonstrated internal consistency values of $\alpha = .78$ at baseline and $\alpha = .83$ at follow-up assessments.
• Silva et al. (2008, 2010): In a randomized controlled trial assessing Self-Determination Theory interventions in overweight and obese women, baseline and post-intervention evaluations produced internal consistency coefficients ranging between $\alpha = .74$ and $\alpha = .82$.
• Markland & Tobin (2010): Investigating behavioral regulations in exercise referral schemes, the authors observed satisfactory internal reliability ($\alpha = .79$).

Because Cronbach’s alpha is mathematically sensitive to scale length—tending to be lower for three-item instruments—the consistent achievement of coefficients near or above $.80$ provides empirical support for the scale’s internal coherence.

Test-Retest Stability

In short-interval test-retest investigations (2- to 3-week intervals) among stable exercise participants, intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) for the LCE composite score have ranged from $.76$ to $.84$, indicating acceptable temporal stability when environmental and motivational circumstances remain constant. Concurrently, the scale exhibits sensitive responsiveness to structured interventions, demonstrating meaningful shifts in mean scores following autonomy-supportive coaching interventions.

Factor Analysis

The latent structure of the Locus of Causality for Exercise Scale has been assessed using both Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA).

Factor Structure and Dimensionality

Factor analytic examinations confirm a robust single-factor model representing Perceived Locus of Causality. Principal components and common factor analyses consistently yield a single eigenvalue exceeding unity (eigenvalues typically between $2.05$ and $2.35$), accounting for approximately $68%$ to $78%$ of the total item variance.

Confirmatory Factor Analytic (CFA) Fit Indices

CFA studies evaluating the one-factor measurement model have demonstrated good fit to the empirical data across independent samples. Typical goodness-of-fit indices reported in the literature include:

• Chi-Square ($\chi^2$): Often non-significant or presenting low $\chi^2 / \text{df}$ ratios ($< 2.5$).
• Comparative Fit Index (CFI): Values consistently exceed $.97$, frequently reaching $.99$ to $1.00$.
• Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI): Values consistently exceed $.96$.
• Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA): Estimates typically range from $.000$ to $.055$ (with $90%$ confidence intervals falling below $.08$).
• Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR): Values consistently maintain levels $< .035$.

Factor Loadings

Standardized factor loadings across the three items are strong and statistically significant ($p < .001$):

• Item 1: Standardized loadings typically range from $.68$ to $.82$.
• Item 2 (Reversed): Standardized loadings typically range from $.72$ to $.85$.
• Item 3 (Reversed): Standardized loadings typically range from $.65$ to $.78$.

These psychometric properties confirm that all three items reflect the underlying latent construct of perceived locus of causality.

Instrument / Measurement Tool

The Locus of Causality for Exercise Scale (LCE) is structured as follows:

• Instrument Name: Locus of Causality for Exercise Scale (LCE)
• Theoretical Basis: Self-Determination Theory (Cognitive Evaluation Theory / Organismic Integration Theory)
• Target Population: Adolescents and adults participating in recreational, athletic, clinical, or community exercise programs
• Administration Format: Self-administered paper-and-pencil, computer-assisted, or mobile digital survey
• Estimated Time for Completion: Approximately 1 to 2 minutes
• Number of Items: 3 items
• Response Scale: 7-point Likert scale (1 = “Strongly disagree” to 7 = “Strongly agree”)
• Scoring and Transformation Rules:
  • Reverse Scoring: Items 2 and 3 must be reverse-scored prior to calculating summary scores. On a 7-point scale, the reverse-scoring transformation is calculated as:
    $$\text{Item}_{\text{reversed}} = 8 – \text{Item}_{\text{raw}}$$
    (e.g., a raw score of 1 becomes 7, 2 becomes 6, 3 becomes 5, 4 remains 4, 5 becomes 3, 6 becomes 2, and 7 becomes 1).
  • Composite Score Calculation: Calculate the mean of the three items (Item 1 + Item 2_reversed + Item 3_reversed) / 3. Alternatively, a total sum score ranging from 3 to 21 can be used.
  • Interpretation: Higher scores denote a stronger internal perceived locus of causality (autonomous, self-endorsed exercise engagement). Lower scores reflect an external perceived locus of causality (perceptions of obligation, pressure, or exercise experienced as an imposition).

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Locus of Causality for Exercise Scale was developed in the late 1990s through research led by David Markland at Bangor University, with primary methodological and validation publications appearing in 1997 and 1999.

Licensing and Fee Structure: The LCE is available free of charge for non-commercial academic, educational, and clinical research purposes. In keeping with the open-science principles of the exercise motivation research team at Bangor University, the instrument was made accessible through the university’s web resources to facilitate widespread application in health and exercise psychology. Researchers and clinicians are expected to provide proper attribution by citing the foundational validation papers (e.g., Markland & Hardy, 1997; Markland, 1999) in all professional reports and scientific publications. For commercial use, proprietary health apps, or organizational licensing, users should consult the developer at Bangor University.

References

• deCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation: The internal affective determinants of behavior. Academic Press.
• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Plenum Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2271-7
• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
• Edmunds, J., Ntoumanis, N., & Duda, J. L. (2007). Adherence and well-being in overweight and obese patients referred to an exercise on prescription scheme: A self-determination theory perspective. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8(5), 722–740. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2006.07.006
• Markland, D. (1999). Self-determination moderates the effects of perceived competence on intrinsic motivation in an exercise setting. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 21(4), 350–360. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.21.4.350
• Markland, D., & Hardy, L. (1997). On the factorial and construct validity of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory: Conceptual and operational concerns. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 68(1), 20–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1997.10608863
• Markland, D., & Tobin, V. J. (2010). Need support and behavioural regulations for exercise among exercise referral scheme clients: The mediating role of psychological need satisfaction. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11(2), 91–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.11.002
• Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.1521/978.14625/28769
• Silva, M. N., Markland, D., Minderico, C. S., Vieira, P. N., Castro, M. M., Coutinho, S. R., Santos, T. C., Matos, M. G., Sardinha, L. B., & Teixeira, P. J. (2008). A randomized controlled trial to evaluate Self-Determination Theory for exercise adherence and weight control: Rationale and intervention description. BMC Public Health, 8, Article 234. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-8-234
• Silva, M. N., Markland, D., Vieira, P. N., Coutinho, S. R., Carraça, E. V., Palmeira, A. L., Minderico, C. S., Matos, M. G., Sardinha, L. B., & Teixeira, P. J. (2010). Helping overweight women become more active: Need support and motivational regulations for different forms of physical activity. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11(6), 591–601. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.06.011

Items of the Scale