Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children

Abstract

The Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children (N-SLOC; Nowicki & Strickland, 1973) is an internationally recognized, 40-item self-report psychometric instrument designed to measure generalized locus of control expectancies in children and adolescents aged approximately 9 to 18 years (grades 3 through 12). Grounded in Julian B. Rotter’s Social Learning Theory, the instrument operationalizes the construct of generalized expectancies regarding reinforcement contingency—evaluating whether youth perceive life outcomes, rewards, and punishments as contingent upon their own personal effort, agency, and competence (internal locus of control) or as governed by external contingencies such as fate, luck, chance, or powerful others (external locus of control). The measure employs a dichotomous “Yes” or “No” forced-choice response format, with items scored such that higher aggregate scores indicate a higher external orientation. Standardized psychometric investigations demonstrate adequate to robust split-half reliability coefficients ranging from .63 in elementary cohorts (grades 3–5) to .81 in high school populations (grades 9–12), alongside stable test-retest coefficients (.63 to .71 across six-week testing intervals). Factor analytic evaluations have revealed meaningful multidimensional facets—such as helplessness, superstition/fatalism, academic competence, and interpersonal control—operating beneath an overarching generalized expectancy dimension. Extensively validated against academic performance, emotional adjustment, pediatric medical compliance, and social competence, the N-SLOC remains a foundational assessment tool across clinical, developmental, and educational psychology.

Keywords

Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale, N-SLOC, locus of control, internal-external expectancy, social learning theory, child psychometrics, perceived control, academic achievement, developmental psychology, childhood assessment

Authors

The scale was developed by Stephen Nowicki, Jr., Ph.D., and Bonnie R. Strickland, Ph.D.

• Stephen Nowicki, Jr., Ph.D.: Charles Howard Candler Professor of Psychology Emeritus at Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States. Dr. Nowicki is an internationally recognized clinical psychologist and developmental researcher whose scholarship focuses on perceived control, nonverbal communication in children, and the socio-emotional determinants of academic and interpersonal adjustment.
• Bonnie R. Strickland, Ph.D.: Professor Emerita of Psychology at the University of Massachusetts Amherst and former President of the American Psychological Association (APA, 1987). Dr. Strickland has published extensively in the fields of clinical psychology, health psychology, locus of control theory, and social determinants of mental health.

Purpose

The primary purpose of the Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children is to measure children’s generalized beliefs regarding the nature of the causal connection between their actions and subsequent positive or negative outcomes. Prior to the construction of the N-SLOC in the early 1970s, existing measures of internal-external locus of control, such as Rotter’s (1966) Internal-External (I-E) Scale, were normed on adult populations and utilized complex forced-choice syntactic structures that were conceptually and linguistically inaccessible to youth. Other existing developmental scales, such as the Intellectual Achievement Responsibility (IAR) questionnaire (Crandall, Katkovsky, & Crandall, 1965), focused almost exclusively on academic and intellectual environments, omitting social, familial, peer, and physical domains of childhood experience.

The N-SLOC was developed to fulfill several foundational research, educational, and clinical imperatives:

• Comprehensive Domain Representation: The scale samples children’s control expectancies across an expansive breadth of developmental situations, including academic competence, interpersonal peer relationships, parental authority, sports and physical ability, and superstitious or fatalistic beliefs.
• Developmental Sensitivity: The linguistic framing of the items was specifically calibrated for readability down to the third-grade reading level. For younger children or populations with reading difficulties, the instrument was designed to be administered via oral presentation without compromising psychometric validity.
• Clinical and Diagnostic Assessment: In clinical settings, the N-SLOC assists in identifying youth presenting with learned helplessness, severe external attribution styles, depressive symptomatology, school refusal, and oppositional dynamics. Understanding whether a child views their environment as responsive to personal effort or as entirely arbitrary directly informs cognitive-behavioral interventions.
• Educational and Achievement Research: The scale enables educational psychologists to investigate how generalized expectancies interact with intrinsic motivation, study habits, academic endurance, and standardized test outcomes.
• Pediatric Health Psychology: The instrument is used to examine adherence to medical regimens (e.g., in juvenile diabetes, asthma self-management, and chronic illness protocols), where an internal orientation correlates with superior treatment adherence and self-care agency.

Psychological Construct

The psychological construct evaluated by the N-SLOC is locus of control of reinforcement, originally formulated by Julian B. Rotter. Locus of control is defined as a generalized expectancy regarding whether reinforcement is under internal or external determination:

• Internal Locus of Control: The expectancy that life events, positive rewards, academic success, social acceptance, and negative consequences are fundamentally contingent upon one’s own behavior, personal capacities, effort, persistence, and decisions. Children who possess an internal orientation believe that they are the primary architects of their life outcomes.
• External Locus of Control: The expectancy that reinforcement is not contingent upon one’s own actions, but is instead governed by chance, luck, fate, unpredictable systemic forces, or powerful others (such as parents, teachers, or dominant peers). Children exhibiting an external orientation tend to view effort as futile, feeling that outcomes will unfold regardless of their personal striving.

Within the developmental landscape, locus of control is not a static trait, but an evolving cognitive orientation shaped by cumulative reinforcement histories, parental autonomy support, socioeconomic stability, and developmental maturation. The N-SLOC captures multiple contextual dimensions through which children manifest internal or external expectancies:

1. Helplessness and Environmental Contingency

This dimension examines whether children perceive external forces as systematically overwhelming their capacity to influence reality. Items such as “Do you feel that when bad things are going to happen they just are going to happen no matter what you try to do to stop them?” (Item 29) and “Do you feel that most of the time it doesn’t pay to try hard because things never turn out right anyway?” (Item 7) assess generalized fatalism and resignation. Youth endorsing external options on these items express an overarching sense of learned helplessness, viewing personal intervention as powerless against negative outcomes.

2. Academic and Competence Expectancies

A child’s educational environment provides constant feedback regarding personal effort versus arbitrary evaluation. Items such as “Do you believe that if somebody studies hard enough he or she can pass any subject?” (Item 6) and “Do you usually feel that it’s almost useless to try in school because most other children are just plain smarter than you are?” (Item 37) measure whether a student links grades and scholastic progression to cognitive engagement and effort or to fixed, unalterable intellectual deficits and arbitrary teacher preferences.

3. Interpersonal and Peer Affiliation

Peer dynamics represent a major psychosocial milestone in middle childhood and adolescence. Items such as “Do you believe that whether or not people like you depends on how you act?” (Item 25) and “Do you feel that when someone doesn’t like you there is little you can do about it?” (Item 36) explore whether social acceptance, friendship acquisition, and conflict resolution are perceived as governed by personal pro-social behavior and communication or by uncontrollable social exclusion.

4. Parental and Authority Dynamics

Children must navigate power differentials within family systems. Items such as “Do you feel that most of the time parents listen to what their children have to say?” (Item 9) and “Do you feel that it’s nearly impossible to change your parents’ mind about anything?” (Item 14) assess whether family authority is experienced as responsive to negotiation, dialogue, and rational appeal, or as rigidly authoritarian, unresponsive, and arbitrary.

5. Superstition, Luck, and Fatalism

Childhood cognitive development frequently intersects with magical thinking and superstitious beliefs. Items such as “Are some kids just born lucky?” (Item 3), “Do you believe that wishing can make good things happen?” (Item 10), and “Have you ever had a good luck charm?” (Item 24) delineate whether youth ascribe success to empirical preparation and effort or to supernatural, mystical, and talismanic elements.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical bedrock of the N-SLOC resides within Julian B. Rotter’s (1954) Social Learning Theory. Rotter posited that the potential for any specific behavior to occur in a designated psychological situation is a function of the expectancy that the behavior will lead to a particular reinforcement, coupled with the psychological value of that reinforcement to the individual. This relationship is formally expressed through the formula:

BP_x,s1,Ra = f(E_x,Ra,s1 & RV_a,s1)

where BP represents Behavior Potential, E is the Expectancy of reinforcement, and RV is Reinforcement Value in situation s1.

Rotter differentiated between specific expectancies (expectancies learned within a singular, familiar setting) and generalized expectancies (expectancies that generalize across novel, ambiguous, or diverse ecological contexts based on cumulative developmental learning). Locus of control represents one such primary generalized expectancy. When children encounter novel situations—such as entering a new grade, confronting an academic challenge, or resolving a peer disagreement—they rely on generalized expectancies of control to determine their level of behavioral engagement, cognitive persistence, and emotional investment.

The construct also intersects with other prominent psychological paradigms:

• Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory and Self-Efficacy: While Albert Bandura distinguished between outcome expectancies (the belief that a given behavior will produce a given outcome) and self-efficacy (the belief in one’s personal capability to execute the required behavior), internal locus of control conceptually underpins the belief system necessary for self-efficacy to translate into action. If a child believes the environment is fundamentally non-contingent (external locus), high self-efficacy regarding task performance may fail to motivate action because the outcome is still deemed outside personal control.
• Seligman’s Learned Helplessness Model: External locus of control shares substantial conceptual overlap with Martin Seligman’s construct of learned helplessness. When individuals repeatedly experience aversive stimuli that they cannot terminate or modify, they generalize the belief that outcomes are independent of behavior. On the N-SLOC, elevated scores directly operationalize this systemic sense of personal insignificance relative to environmental demands.
• Weiner’s Attribution Theory: Bernard Weiner expanded causal attribution models into three dimensions: locus of causality (internal vs. external), stability (stable vs. unstable), and controllability (controllable vs. uncontrollable). The N-SLOC evaluates whether a child routinely attributes successes and failures to internal/controllable factors (e.g., effort, personal action) or external/uncontrollable factors (e.g., luck, task difficulty, powerful authorities).

Validity

The psychometric validity of the N-SLOC has been established across several decades of empirical research across clinical, developmental, and school psychology.

Construct Validity

Construct validity is evidenced by the consistent developmental progression observed in empirical studies: as children grow older and achieve greater cognitive autonomy and physical agency, mean scores on the N-SLOC systematically decrease, reflecting a developmental shift toward internal locus of control. In their foundational study, Nowicki and Strickland (1973) demonstrated that mean external scores declined across successive school grades (e.g., 3rd grade M = 19.1; 6th grade M = 14.8; 10th grade M = 11.9; 12th grade M = 10.8), establishing that the scale captures maturation in personal agency.

Furthermore, construct validity has been affirmed by examining socio-ecological variables. Children reared in unpredictable, socially marginalized, or economically insecure environments frequently demonstrate higher external scores, reflecting realistic ecological feedback rather than intrapsychic pathology, thereby validating the scale’s sensitivity to environmental contingency structures.

Convergent Validity

The N-SLOC correlates significantly with other validated measures of perceived control:

• Bialer-Cromwell Children’s Locus of Control Scale: Nowicki and Strickland (1973) observed significant correlations with the Bialer-Cromwell scale ranging from .41 in younger children to .68 in adolescent groups.
• Intellectual Achievement Responsibility (IAR) Questionnaire: Statistically significant correlations (ranging from .35 to .51) have been consistently reported between the N-SLOC and the IAR Total and Subscale scores (Crandall et al., 1965), confirming that generalized control beliefs are meaningfully aligned with specific academic responsibility attribution.
• Rotter’s Adult I-E Scale: In 12th-grade cohorts transitioning into young adulthood, N-SLOC scores demonstrated strong convergent alignment with Rotter’s adult measure (r = .61), validating the construct continuity across the adolescent-adult boundary.

Discriminant Validity

A critical consideration during scale development was decoupling locus of control from intellectual capability and social desirability bias:

• Intelligence and Cognitive Ability: Correlations between the N-SLOC and standardized IQ measures (e.g., the Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test and WISC) are modest and nonsignificant in most general education samples, ranging between -.06 and -.18. This demonstrates that internal control expectancies reflect a psychological orientation rather than cognitive capacity.
• Social Desirability: Correlations with the Children’s Social Desirability Scale (Crandall, Crandall, & Katkovsky, 1963) are consistently low (typically between -.10 and -.22), indicating that children’s responses on the N-SLOC are minimally confounded by the desire to present oneself in a socially conventional or flattering light.

Criterion and Predictive Validity

The predictive validity of the N-SLOC is widely documented across domains:

• Academic Achievement: Scores correlate significantly with standardized achievement test scores (e.g., Stanford Achievement Test, Iowa Tests of Basic Skills) and cumulative grade point averages (GPAs). Students with internal orientations systematically outscore peers with external orientations, demonstrating higher persistence when encountering difficult scholastic tasks.
• Behavioral and Clinical Outcomes: Lower external scores predict lower self-reported anxiety, reduced incidence of depressive affect, and superior self-regulation in classroom settings. Conversely, elevated external scores correlate with teacher-rated behavioral problems, hyperactivity, peer relationship difficulties, and school absenteeism.
• Health Behaviors: In pediatric healthcare, internal N-SLOC scores predict superior metabolic control in youths with Type 1 diabetes and higher compliance with asthma self-management protocols.

Reliability

The reliability of the N-SLOC has been established through internal consistency analyses and temporal stability assessments across diverse socioeconomic, demographic, and educational cohorts.

Internal Consistency

Because the N-SLOC is administered with a dichotomous “Yes” or “No” response format across a broad range of life domains, split-half reliability (corrected using the Spearman-Brown prediction formula) and Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 (KR-20) have served as the standard metrics of internal consistency:

• Grades 3, 4, and 5: Split-half reliability estimates in younger elementary cohorts range from r = .63 to .68. This moderate internal consistency is consistent with developmental theory, reflecting ongoing cognitive emergence and consolidation of generalized locus of control beliefs during middle childhood.
• Grades 6, 7, and 8: In middle school cohorts, internal consistency increases, with split-half coefficients ranging between r = .68 and .74.
• Grades 9, 10, 11, and 12: In high school populations, internal consistency coefficients reach their peak, with Spearman-Brown values consistently documented between r = .71 and .81.

Because the scale intentionally samples heterogeneous situational domains (e.g., academic, social, familial, physical, and superstitious), internal consistency coefficients around .70–.80 represent an optimal balance between construct breadth and item convergence.

Test-Retest Reliability

Temporal stability evaluations demonstrate that children’s control expectancies remain consistent over time while still allowing for developmental progression:

• Third-Grade Cohorts: Test-retest reliability over a six-week interval was documented at r = .63 (Nowicki & Strickland, 1973).
• Seventh-Grade Cohorts: Over an identical six-week period, the stability coefficient increased to r = .66.
• Tenth-Grade Cohorts: For high school sophomores, test-retest reliability across six weeks was measured at r = .71.

Longitudinal studies extending over multiple academic years confirm that although individual ranks remain stable relative to age peers, aggregate absolute scores demonstrate gradual downward shifts, documenting healthy maturation toward an internal orientation.

Factor Analysis

Although the N-SLOC was originally conceived as a generalized, unidimensional measurement of internal versus external control expectancies, extensive Exploratory Factor Analyses (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analyses (CFA) conducted across diverse adolescent and child populations have consistently identified a robust multidimensional substructure operating within the overarching construct.

Exploratory Factor Analytic Findings

Early factor analytic work by Nowicki (1976), Roberts (1978), and Kendall et al. (1979) utilized principal components analysis with varimax rotation, repeatedly identifying between three and five dominant, interpretable factors:

• Factor 1: General Helplessness / Fatalism: This factor accounts for the largest proportion of total variance. Items loading heavily on this factor include Item 7 (“doesn’t pay to try hard”), Item 29 (“bad things are going to happen no matter what”), and Item 31 (“useless to try to get your own way at home”). Factor loadings for these core items typically exceed .50.
• Factor 2: Academic and Scholastic Competence: Centered on school environments and achievement contingencies, this factor is anchored by Item 6 (“if somebody studies hard enough he or she can pass any subject”), Item 22 (“whether you do your homework has much to do with grades”), and Item 37 (“useless to try in school because most other children are smarter”). Loadings consistently range between .45 and .65.
• Factor 3: Interpersonal and Peer Acceptance: Reflecting the child’s belief in their capacity to initiate friendships and resolve social disputes. Anchored by Item 25 (“whether or not people like you depends on how you act”), Item 33 (“when somebody wants to be your enemy there’s little you can do”), and Item 36 (“when someone doesn’t like you there is little you can do”).
• Factor 4: Superstition and Luck: Isolating magical thinking and external attribution to chance phenomena, highlighted by Item 3 (“some kids just born lucky”), Item 10 (“wishing can make good things happen”), Item 21 (“four leaf clover might bring good luck”), and Item 24 (“good luck charm”).
• Factor 5: Parental Authority and Family Governance: Reflecting feelings of autonomy and input within the family unit, defined by Item 9 (“parents listen to what their children have to say”), Item 14 (“impossible to change your parents mind”), and Item 39 (“little to say about what your family decides to do”).

Confirmatory Factor Analytic (CFA) Evidence

Subsequent structural equation modeling and CFA investigations have tested competing models of the N-SLOC structure:

• Unidimensional Model: A single-factor model typically yields sub-optimal fit indices in older children and adolescents (e.g., Root Mean Square Error of Approximation [RMSEA] > .08; Comparative Fit Index [CFI] < .85), confirming that locus of control differentiates as youth develop cognitive complexity.
• Hierarchical / Higher-Order Model: A second-order factor model—in which a generalized internal-external locus of control factor subsumes first-order sub-factors (Helplessness, Academic Mastery, Interpersonal Control, and Superstition)—yields acceptable to good fit indices (RMSEA ≈ .045 to .055; CFI ≈ .91 to .94; Tucker-Lewis Index [TLI] ≈ .90 to .93).

Consequently, psychometric consensus supports using the total score as an index of generalized control expectancy, while recognizing that subscale factor scores provide valuable diagnostic nuance in targeted clinical and psychoeducational applications.

Instrument / Measurement Tool

• Instrument Name: Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children (N-SLOC)
• Alternative Names: Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Control Scale for Children; Personal Reaction Survey (7th–12th graders)
• Primary Authors: Stephen Nowicki, Jr., Ph.D., and Bonnie R. Strickland, Ph.D.
• Publication Year: 1971 (initial APA presentation); 1973 (peer-reviewed publication)
• Target Population: Children and adolescents, grades 3 through 12 (approximate chronological ages 9 to 18 years)
• Administration Format: Self-report questionnaire, individually or group-administered. For children in grades 3 to 4, or for clinical populations with reading difficulties, items may be read aloud by the examiner while respondents mark answers on their forms.
• Estimated Completion Time: 10 to 15 minutes
• Number of Items: 40 items
• Response Scale: Forced-choice dichotomous format (“Yes” or “No”)
• Scoring Philosophy: The scale is keyed in the external direction. Each response that corresponds to the external scoring key receives a score of 1 point. Responses reflecting internal expectancies receive 0 points.
• Total Score Range: 0 to 40 points.
  • Higher Scores (e.g., > 19 in high school, > 23 in elementary): Indicate an External Locus of Control—a generalized belief that events, successes, and difficulties are controlled by fate, luck, chance, or powerful external agents.
  • Lower Scores (e.g., < 12 in high school, < 15 in elementary): Indicate an Internal Locus of Control—a generalized belief that outcomes are contingent on personal behavior, initiative, persistence, and ability.
• External Scoring Key:
  • External response is “YES” (24 Items): Items 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 27, 29, 31, 33, 35, 36, 37, and 39.
  • External response is “NO” (16 Items): Items 2, 4, 6, 9, 13, 15, 20, 22, 25, 26, 28, 30, 32, 34, 38, and 40.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children was originally presented at the 79th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association in 1971 and formally published in the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology in 1973. Consistent with the open academic dissemination policies of its era and the authors’ commitment to developmental and educational scholarship, the N-SLOC is placed in the public domain for non-commercial educational, scientific, clinical, and research purposes. Researchers and practitioners may administer, reproduce, score, and translate the scale without royalty fees, provided appropriate scholarly attribution is accorded to Stephen Nowicki, Jr. and Bonnie R. Strickland.

Commercial reproduction, inclusion in fee-for-service diagnostic platforms, or distribution within copyrighted commercial assessment batteries requires formal written authorization from the authors or their legal estate/institutional representatives at Emory University. Inquiries regarding adapted short forms, preschool versions, or adult extensions should be directed to the Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.

References

• Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.2.191
• Bialer, I. (1961). Conceptualization of success and failure in mentally retarded and normal children. Journal of Personality, 29(3), 303–320. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1961.tb01662.x
• Crandall, V. C., Crandall, V. J., & Katkovsky, W. (1963). A children’s social desirability questionnaire. Child Development, 34(3), 543–566. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1963.tb05128.x
• Crandall, V. C., Katkovsky, W., & Crandall, V. J. (1965). Children’s beliefs in their own control of reinforcements in intellectual-academic achievement situations. Child Development, 36(1), 91–109. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1965.tb05330.x
• Kendall, P. C., Finch, A. J., Little, V. L., Chirico, B. M., & Ollendick, T. H. (1979). Variations in a children’s locus of control scale: A closer look at reliability, developmental tendencies, and factor structure. Child Development, 50(2), 569–572. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129440
• Lefcourt, H. M. (1982). Locus of control: Current trends in theory and research (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Nowicki, S., Jr. (1976). Factor structure of the Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale for Children. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 129(1), 13–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.1976.10534003
• Nowicki, S., Jr., & Strickland, B. R. (1971). A Locus of Control Scale for Children. Paper presented at the 79th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Washington, D.C. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED058933.pdf
• Nowicki, S., Jr., & Strickland, B. R. (1973). A locus of control scale for children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 40(1), 148–154. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0037230
• Nowicki, S., Jr., & Strickland, B. R. (1978). The Nowicki–Strickland Personal Reaction Survey for 7th–12th graders. Department of Psychology, Emory University.
• Phares, E. J. (1976). Locus of control in personality. General Learning Press.
• Roberts, A. (1978). The factor structure of the Children’s Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Control Scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 38(4), 1121–1126. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447803800438
• Rotter, J. B. (1954). Social learning and clinical psychology. Prentice-Hall. https://doi.org/10.1037/11382-000
• Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 80(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0092976
• Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development, and death. W. H. Freeman.
• Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92(4), 548–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548

Items of the Scale