Parent Experiences of Racial Socialization (PERS)

1. Abstract

The Parent Experiences of Racial Socialization (PERS) is an influential psychometric instrument developed by Dr. Howard C. Stevenson to assess the frequency, content, and nature of racial socialization messages communicated by African American parents, caregivers, and extended kinship networks to their children. Rooted in developmental psychopathology, ecological systems theory, and African American family psychology, the PERS captures how parents navigate the multifaceted realities of structural racism, cultural heritage, spiritual resilience, and societal integration. Comprising 40 self-report items evaluated on a 3-point behavioral frequency rating scale (1 = never, 2 = a few times, 3 = a lot of the time), the PERS measures the multidimensional architecture of parental racial communications across distinct empirical dimensions.

Early theoretical conceptualizations established subscales including Cultural Coping with Antagonism (CCA), Cultural Pride Reinforcement (CPR), Cultural Appreciation of Legacy (CAL), Cultural Alertness to Discrimination (CAD), and Cultural Endorsement of the Mainstream (CEM). Subsequent exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, most notably structural evaluations conducted by Thomas et al. (2013) and Friend (2009), have illuminated both 5-factor and 4-factor models capturing core domains: Spiritual and Religious Coping, Alertness to Discrimination / Preparation for Bias, Cultural Pride and Legacy, and Mainstream Endorsement. The instrument demonstrates robust psychometric integrity across diverse empirical investigations, yielding total scale Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency coefficients consistently exceeding .85 (typically ranging between .85 and .88 across community and educational samples), with individual subscale reliabilities demonstrating adequate to strong internal cohesion (.68 to .84).

Construct validity is substantiated through documented associations with parental racial identity developmental stages, youth academic self-efficacy, psychological adjustment, buffering against discrimination-induced distress, and parental protective monitoring behaviors. As an indispensable tool in child clinical psychology, family studies, and multicultural education, the PERS provides critical insight into the culturally specific parenting processes that foster psychological resilience, racial identity clarity, and emotional well-being among Black children and youth navigating racially hostile or biased environments.

2. Keywords

Parent Experiences of Racial Socialization, PERS, Howard Stevenson, racial socialization, African American parenting, cultural pride reinforcement, preparation for bias, discrimination coping, psychometrics, scale validation, triple quandary theory, spiritual coping

3. Authors

The Parent Experiences of Racial Socialization (PERS) scale was conceptualized and developed by Howard C. Stevenson, Ph.D., the Constance Clayton Professor of Urban Education and Professor of Africana Studies at the Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania. Dr. Stevenson is an internationally recognized clinical psychologist, educator, and researcher whose groundbreaking scholarship has fundamentally shaped the conceptualization of racial stress, racial trauma, racial literacy, and coping strategies among African American children, adolescents, and families.

Dr. Stevenson serves as the Executive Director of the Racial Empowerment Collaborative (REC) at the University of Pennsylvania, an interdisciplinary research center dedicated to promoting racial literacy, reducing racial stress, and enhancing psychological resilience in schools and neighborhood communities. His foundational research spanning several decades produced not only the PERS, but also corresponding youth instruments, notably the Teenager Experience of Racial Socialization (TERS) scale, and the Scale of Racial Socialization for African American Adolescents (SORS-A).

Subsequent psychometric evaluations, factor-analytic validation studies, and structural revisions of the PERS have involved prominent developmental and family psychologists, notably Anita Jones Thomas, Ph.D. (St. Catherine University), Sha’Kema M. Blackmon, Ph.D. (Purdue University Northwest), Suzette L. Speight, Ph.D., and Christian A. Friend, Ph.D., whose collaborative empirical analyses have further refined the instrument’s structural integrity, scoring procedures, and clinical utility.

4. Purpose

The Parent Experiences of Racial Socialization (PERS) was designed to measure the explicit behavioral frequency and multifaceted thematic content of race-related messages, teachings, and behavioral modeling that African American parents impart to their offspring. Historically, classical developmental psychology frameworks evaluated parental socialization almost exclusively through Eurocentric lenses that emphasized generic parenting styles (e.g., authoritative, authoritarian, permissive) without accounting for the profound, inescapable socio-political realities of systemic racism, racial stereotyping, and historical oppression. The development of the PERS was motivated by the urgent necessity for an empirically sound, culturally grounded instrument capable of operationalizing how African American parents intentionally prepare their children to survive, thrive, and maintain psychological wellness within a race-conscious society.

In clinical and developmental research, the PERS serves multiple interconnected empirical objectives:

• Quantifying Proactive versus Reactive Socialization: The tool distinguishes between proactive cultural socialization—such as instilling racial pride, teaching African and African American historical achievements, and fostering communal spirituality—and reactive socialization strategies designed to warn children of institutional bias, microaggressions, and racial antagonism.
• Investigating Child Developmental Outcomes: Researchers utilize the PERS to examine how parental communication patterns predict youth academic achievement, racial-ethnic identity formation, school bonding, self-esteem, executive functioning, and externalizing or internalizing symptoms. Empirical literature indicates that balanced racial socialization practices serve as a primary protective buffer mitigating the debilitating psychological effects of perceived racial discrimination.
• Informing Culturally Responsive Clinical Interventions: In family therapy, community mental health settings, and pediatric behavioral health clinics, the PERS provides clinicians with an objective assessment of parental coping mechanisms and ideological orientations. Understanding whether a family predominantly emphasizes spiritual coping, race-neutral mainstream assimilation, or intensive preparation for bias enables therapists to tailor interventions that align with family values while addressing potential racial trauma or anxiety.
• Elucidating Generational Transmission of Racial Coping: By comparing parent responses on the PERS with adolescent reports on the corresponding Teenager Experience of Racial Socialization (TERS) scale, scholars can rigorously analyze generational concordance, bidirectional parent-child communication discrepancies, and the moderating role of relational warmth on message transmission.

The theoretical rationale of the PERS recognizes that racial socialization is not a monolithic, one-dimensional phenomenon, but rather a sophisticated, dynamic ecological balancing act. Black parents must simultaneously celebrate their children’s heritage, foster spiritual and emotional fortitude, warn them of physical and institutional dangers associated with anti-Black racism, and equip them with the competencies necessary to navigate mainstream educational and corporate institutions. The PERS provides researchers and clinicians with the empirical granularity required to evaluate these distinct yet interdependent parenting dimensions.

5. Psychological Construct

The psychological construct captured by the Parent Experiences of Racial Socialization is multidimensional parental racial socialization, defined as the transmission of parental values, beliefs, attitudes, behavioral expectations, and coping mechanisms concerning racial dynamics, cultural identity, and intergroup interactions. Rather than conceptualizing racial socialization merely as advice on racism, Stevenson and colleagues established a nuanced taxonomy reflecting historical, psychological, and spiritual realities.

Cultural Coping with Antagonism (CCA)

The Cultural Coping with Antagonism dimension captures parental communications that acknowledge the existence of institutional and interpersonal hostility while providing active, empowering strategies to navigate racial barriers without succumbing to demoralization. Items loading on this construct emphasize that while racism and societal prejudice are persistent, hard work, vigilance, and proactive resistance enable Black youth to surmount discriminatory obstacles. For instance, Item 11 (“If you work hard then you can overcome barriers in life”) and Item 28 (“You have to work twice as hard as whites in order to get ahead in this world”) reflect the classic intergenerational imperative that excellence and perseverance are necessary survival competencies when facing structural inequities.

Cultural Pride Reinforcement (CPR)

The Cultural Pride Reinforcement dimension operationalizes positive racial identification, collective self-worth, and explicit messages fostering aesthetic and cultural appreciation for Blackness. This construct counteracts pervasive societal stigmatization and Eurocentric beauty standards by promoting unconditional racial pride. Illustrative items include Item 9 (“You should be proud to be Black”), Item 30 (“Be proud of who you are”), and Item 33 (“Never be ashamed of your color”). Research indicates that high frequencies of CPR messages are strongly correlated with elevated self-esteem, psychological resilience, and intrinsic academic motivation among youth.

Cultural Appreciation of Legacy (CAL)

The Cultural Appreciation of Legacy construct focuses on the transgenerational transmission of historical knowledge, ancestral heritage, and historical consciousness. Distinct from immediate racial pride, CAL emphasizes connection to historical struggles, African roots, and historical excellence. This is exemplified by Item 4 (“Black slavery is important never to forget”), Item 14 (“Knowing your African heritage is important for your survival”), Item 16 (“You are connected to a history that goes back to African royalty”), and Item 26 (“You should know about Black history so that you will be a better person”). CAL anchors the developing child within an expansive historical continuum, transforming historical trauma into a source of enduring fortitude.

Cultural Alertness to Discrimination (CAD) / Preparation for Bias

The Cultural Alertness to Discrimination construct measures parental efforts to proactively alert, educate, and prepare children for the reality of racial prejudice, institutional unfairness, and disparate treatment. Parents utilize CAD messages to prevent their children from internalizing negative racial experiences as personal shortcomings. Representative items include Item 15 (“Racism is real and you have to understand it or it will hurt you”), Item 34 (“Whites have more opportunities than Blacks”), Item 35 (“A Black child or teenager will be harassed just because s/he is Black”), and Item 38 (“Blacks don’t always have the same opportunities as whites”). While essential for safety and cognitive appraisal, extreme CAD in the absence of cultural pride or emotional support has been linked in some literature to heightened anticipatory stress, underscoring the critical balance among subscales.

Cultural Endorsement of the Mainstream (CEM)

The Cultural Endorsement of the Mainstream subscale reflects parental socialization toward participation in mainstream American society, egalitarian ideals, and the belief that social mobility is accessible through standardized educational and social channels. It incorporates both egalitarian values and integrationist orientations, as reflected in Item 1 (“American society is fair toward Black people”), Item 10 (“All races are equal”), Item 23 (“Getting a good education is still the best way for you to get ahead”), and Item 32 (“You need to learn how to live in a White world and a Black world”). CEM captures the pragmatic necessity of bicultural competence—enabling Black youth to successfully code-switch and negotiate predominantly white institutional environments while retaining their authentic racial self-concept.

Spiritual and Extended Family Coping (SEC)

Across empirical structural revisions (e.g., Thomas et al., 2013; Friend, 2009), items addressing religious faith, ancestral spirituality, and extended kinship networks consistently coalesce into a vital distinct dimension. Rooted in traditional African worldviews and Black church traditions, this construct reflects reliance on transcendent faith, prayer, and communal solidarity to survive oppression. Items include Item 3 (“Families who go to a church or mosque will be close and stay together”), Item 5 (“Relatives can help Black parents raise their children”), Item 6 (“Religion is an important part of a person’s life”), Item 12 (“A belief in God can help a person deal with tough life struggles”), and Item 37 (“Black children should be taught early that God can protect them from racial hatred”).

6. Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework undergirding the Parent Experiences of Racial Socialization is anchored in the intersection of ecological systems theory, developmental psychopathology, and Afrocentric psychological paradigms. Stevenson conceptualized racial socialization not as a static list of parental directives, but as an active, transactional coping process embedded within the Theoretical Model of Parental Racial Socialization and the Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (PVEST) articulated by Margaret Beale Spencer.

Boykin’s Triple Quandary Theory

A primary conceptual cornerstone of the PERS is A. Wade Boykin’s Triple Quandary Framework (Boykin, 1986). Boykin posited that African American parents and children must negotiate three distinct, often competing, realms of socio-cultural experience:

1. The Mainstream Realm: The mandate to negotiate and master the behavioral styles, values, and institutional demands of dominant white Euro-American culture (reflected in PERS CEM items).
2. The Afrocultural Realm: An enduring cultural orientation characterized by communalism, rhythm, spirituality, expressiveness, and deep kinship bonds derived from historical African continuities and African American cultural evolution (reflected in PERS CPR, CAL, and Spiritual Coping items).
3. The Minority/Oppressed Realm: The acute awareness of structural oppression, chronic socio-economic marginalization, and racial hostility that requires specialized defensive survival strategies and psychological armor (reflected in PERS CAD and CCA items).

Stevenson utilized Boykin’s triple quandary to argue that functional parenting in Black families requires intentional instruction in all three domains. An overemphasis on the mainstream realm at the expense of racial alertness can leave a child psychologically vulnerable to sudden discriminatory events. Conversely, exclusive focus on systemic oppression without cultivating cultural pride and spiritual resilience can lead to cynicism or despair. The PERS quantitatively captures how parents balance these three competing demands.

Stevenson’s PLAAS Model and Racial Literacy

Stevenson subsequently synthesized these insights into the Preventing Long-term Anger and Aggression in Youth (PLAAS) framework and the construct of Racial Literacy (Stevenson, 2014). This theoretical perspective positions racial socialization as a form of stress inoculation and emotional regulation training. Stevenson posits that racial encounters induce acute physiological and psychological stress. Parents who actively socialize their children impart specific cognitive appraisal scripts that enable youth to Read, Recast, and Resolve racial conflicts:

• Read: Accurately decoding racialized cues, microaggressions, and systemic biases without confusion or misattribution.
• Recast: Cognitively reframing racial hostility away from personalized self-blame toward systemic understanding, bolstered by ancestral pride and divine protection.
• Resolve: Executing adaptive behavioral responses—such as asserting dignity, seeking kinship support, or strategically de-escalating confrontations—rather than internalizing trauma or retaliating destructively.

Ecological and Life-Span Developmental Perspectives

Drawing on Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems paradigm, the PERS acknowledges that parental socialization acts as a proximal process within the microsystem that shields developing adolescents from macrosystemic racial toxicity. Furthermore, consistent with developmental models of racial-ethnic identity (e.g., Cross’s Nigrescence theory; Sellers’ Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity), the PERS recognizes that parental socialization frequency varies systematically across child developmental stages. Parents adjust their messaging from basic pride reinforcement in early childhood to sophisticated analyses of institutional discrimination during adolescence, when youth navigate increasingly unmonitored ecological niches.

7. Validity

The psychometric validity of the Parent Experiences of Racial Socialization (PERS) has been extensively substantiated across multiple empirical investigations involving community cohorts, urban educational settings, and clinical research populations.

Construct and Convergent Validity

Construct validity is evidenced through strong, theoretically coherent relationships between PERS subscales and established measures of parental racial identity, cultural ideology, and psychological functioning. Studies evaluating convergent validity demonstrate that parents scoring high on the PERS Cultural Pride Reinforcement and Cultural Appreciation of Legacy subscales score significantly higher on the Pre-encounter (Internalization) and Immersion stages of Cross’s Racial Identity Scale, as well as the Centrality and Private Regard subscales of the Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity (MIBI; Sellers et al., 1997). In contrast, the Cultural Endorsement of the Mainstream subscale correlates positively with assimilationist ideological orientations and lower private regard.

Furthermore, convergence has been confirmed with alternative parental socialization instruments, including the Racial Socialization Questionnaire (Hughes & Chen, 1997). Significant positive correlations (ranging from $r = .48$ to $r = .71$, $p < .001$) emerge between corresponding subscales measuring preparation for bias and cultural promotion, confirming that the PERS accurately operationalizes the core theoretical domains of racial socialization.

Discriminant Validity

Discriminant validity has been demonstrated by showing that PERS dimensions diverge meaningfully from general, non-race-specific parenting metrics, such as general parental warmth, parental overprotection, or authoritative parenting styles (correlations generally modest, $r < .25$). This confirms that racial socialization constitutes a distinct developmental parenting construct rather than merely reflecting elevated general parental involvement or generic communication style. Additionally, factor-analytic studies have demonstrated that while CAD (Alertness to Discrimination) and CPR (Pride Reinforcement) are correlated, they load distinctly on separate latent factors, refuting the notion that preparation for bias is merely the inverse of racial pride.

Criterion-Related and Predictive Validity

The predictive and incremental validity of the PERS is well-documented regarding both parent and adolescent psychological outcomes:

• Academic Efficacy and Achievement: In a landmark doctoral investigation, Friend (2009) evaluated the influence of parental racial socialization on African American student academic outcomes using the PERS. Structural equation modeling revealed that parental endorsement of Cultural Pride and Spiritual Coping directly and positively predicted student academic self-efficacy and classroom engagement, while buffering against academic decrement in racially stressful educational climates.
• Mitigation of Perceived Discrimination: Cole (2014) demonstrated that parental scores on Alertness to Discrimination and Cultural Pride significantly moderated the relationship between emerging adults’ experiences of racial harassment and subsequent psychological distress. Emerging adults whose parents actively practiced balanced racial socialization exhibited lower depressive symptomatology and higher relational disclosure following experiences of discrimination.
• Youth Behavioral Regulation: In studies conducted by Stevenson and colleagues (1996, 2002), parental engagement in proactive racial socialization (as measured by the PERS) was predictive of lower violent coping strategies and greater emotional self-efficacy among African American male adolescents facing urban community stress.

8. Reliability

The Parent Experiences of Racial Socialization demonstrates robust, empirically verified internal consistency across full-scale evaluations and specific subscale dimensions.

Internal Consistency Reliability

In foundational psychometric analyses conducted by Stevenson (1999, 2006), the 40-item full-scale PERS yielded an overall Cronbach’s alpha of .88, indicating exemplary overall reliability. Across subsequent independent empirical investigations, full-scale alpha coefficients have remained remarkably stable, consistently falling between .85 and .89 across diverse geographic regions and socioeconomic strata.

Subscale reliability analyses conducted across major validation studies demonstrate strong internal cohesion:

• Friend (2009) Structural Analysis ($N = 205$ African American parents):
  • Full Scale: $\alpha = .88$
  • Preparation for Bias / Alertness to Discrimination: $\alpha = .82$
  • Spiritual Coping: $\alpha = .83$
  • Cultural Pride / Legacy Development: $\alpha = .80$
  • Cultural Survival / Mainstream Navigation: $\alpha = .71$
• Thomas, Blackmon, Speight, et al. (2013) Factor Validation Study ($N = 312$ Black parents):
  • Religion and Spirituality: $\alpha = .84$
  • Alertness to Discrimination: $\alpha = .81$
  • Cultural Pride and Coping: $\alpha = .79$
  • Mainstream Endorsement: $\alpha = .68$

Subscale alphas consistently meet or exceed established standards for psychometric research ($ge .70$), with the minor exception of brief mainstream endorsement subcomponents, which occasionally hover near .68 due to the intentional heterogeneity of items indexing both egalitarian ideals and systemic bicultural navigation.

Temporal Stability and Measurement Invariance

In test-retest evaluations over intervals of 4 to 8 weeks, the PERS demonstrated stable temporal characteristics, yielding test-retest correlation coefficients ranging from $r = .74$ to $r = .83$ across subscales. Furthermore, measurement invariance testing has indicated structural configural and metric invariance across child gender (parents socializing boys vs. girls), although mean-level differences consistently demonstrate that parents convey higher frequencies of Cultural Alertness to Discrimination to adolescent sons due to heightened parental concerns regarding discriminatory law enforcement and physical harassment.

9. Factor Analysis

The latent dimensionality of the Parent Experiences of Racial Socialization has been investigated through both exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), leading to refined structural models that elucidate the core cognitive and behavioral dimensions of Black parenting.

Initial Theoretical 5-Factor Model (Stevenson, 1999, 2002)

Stevenson’s original conceptualization hypothesized five theoretical factors derived from clinical interviews, community focus groups, and adolescent-parent dyad studies:

1. Cultural Coping with Antagonism (CCA)
2. Cultural Pride Reinforcement (CPR)
3. Cultural Appreciation of Legacy (CAL)
4. Cultural Alertness to Discrimination (CAD)
5. Cultural Endorsement of the Mainstream (CEM)

Initial principal components analyses with varimax and promax rotations accounted for over 46% of the total variance, confirming that parental racial communication is multi-faceted rather than unidimensional.

Empirical Refinement: Thomas et al. (2013)

In a seminal psychometric study published in the Journal of Black Psychology, Thomas, Blackmon, Speight, and colleagues (2013) conducted a rigorous exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of the PERS to evaluate whether Stevenson’s conceptual factors replicated empirically in a broad community sample of Black parents. Utilizing principal axis factoring with oblique (Promax) rotation, Thomas et al. identified a clearer, parsimonious 4-factor structure:

• Factor 1: Religion and Spirituality: Included items emphasizing faith, God, church/mosque attendance, and spiritual warfare (e.g., Items 3, 6, 12, 19, 20, 25, 27, 37). Primary factor loadings ranged from .54 to .78.
• Factor 2: Alertness to Discrimination: Coalesced items reflecting proactive warnings regarding racial bias, unequal opportunities, and interpersonal harassment (e.g., Items 7, 15, 28, 29, 34, 35, 36, 38). Factor loadings ranged from .48 to .76.
• Factor 3: Mainstream Endorsement: Clustered items capturing egalitarian beliefs, bicultural adaptability, and conventional social mobility (e.g., Items 1, 2, 10, 11, 13, 23, 40). Factor loadings ranged from .41 to .69.
• Factor 4: Cultural Pride and Coping: Combined items reflecting Black pride, historical legacy, African roots, and extended kinship reliance (e.g., Items 4, 5, 8, 9, 14, 16, 18, 21, 24, 26, 30, 33). Factor loadings ranged from .45 to .72.

Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated acceptable to superior goodness-of-fit indices for this refined 4-factor configuration compared to alternative models: $\chi^2/df < 2.1$, Comparative Fit Index ($\text{CFI}$) = .92, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation ($\text{RMSEA}$) = .052 (90% CI [.046, .058]), and Standardized Root Mean Square Residual ($\text{SRMR}$) = .058.

Friend (2009) Factorial Replicability

Christian A. Friend’s (2009) structural analysis similarly confirmed four primary operating domains: Cultural Survival, Spiritual Coping, Preparation for Bias, and Pride Development. These empirical replications collectively demonstrate that while minor item-level grouping variations exist depending on sample characteristics, the structural core of the PERS remains fundamentally robust: racial socialization consists of an interconnected matrix of spiritual buffering, racial vigilance, pride development, and societal navigation.

10. Instrument / Measurement Tool

• Full Instrument Name: Parent Experiences of Racial Socialization (PERS)
• Author: Howard C. Stevenson, Ph.D.
• Development / Publication Years: 1999 (Unpublished Measure), 2002, 2006
• Target Population: African American parents, caregivers, guardians, and extended family members raising Black children and adolescents (adaptable for research with other minoritized ethnic groups)
• Administration Format: Self-administered paper-and-pencil or secure digital survey; can be verbally administered by clinical interviewers
• Administration Time: Approximately 10 to 15 minutes
• Total Number of Items: 40 items
• Response Scale: Authentic 3-point behavioral frequency rating format:
  • 1 = never
  • 2 = a few times
  • 3 = a lot of the time
• Scoring and Computational Rules:
  • Full-Scale Composite Score: Calculated by summing or averaging all 40 items (after appropriate reverse-scoring where designated by specific factorial models, e.g., negative mainstream items such as Item 39). Higher scores reflect greater overall frequency of racial socialization messaging.
  • Subscale Scores: Computed by calculating the mean of items comprising each respective subscale (yielding a continuous score from 1.00 to 3.00), allowing researchers to compare relative communicative emphasis across domains regardless of differing item counts per factor.
  • Empirical Subscale Allocations (based on Thomas et al., 2013 and Stevenson, 2006):
    • Religion and Spirituality: Items 3, 6, 12, 19, 20, 25, 27, 37
    • Cultural Alertness to Discrimination / Preparation for Bias: Items 7, 15, 28, 29, 34, 35, 36, 38
    • Cultural Pride and Legacy: Items 4, 5, 8, 9, 14, 16, 18, 21, 24, 26, 30, 33
    • Mainstream Endorsement & Survival: Items 1, 2, 10, 11, 13, 17, 22, 23, 31, 32, 39, 40

11. Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Parent Experiences of Racial Socialization (PERS) scale was originally developed in 1999 and formally codified in research manuscripts by Dr. Howard C. Stevenson in 2002 and 2006 through the University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Education. As an academic psychometric instrument developed through institutional and federally funded research initiatives, the PERS is generally available free of charge for non-commercial academic research, institutional investigations, and educational dissertation studies.

Researchers and clinical professionals seeking to utilize, translate, or adapt the PERS in formal research studies or intervention programs should request permission from the primary developer, Dr. Howard C. Stevenson, or contact the Racial Empowerment Collaborative (REC) at the University of Pennsylvania. Inquiries regarding official scoring guides, adolescent companion versions (TERS), and training in Stevenson’s racial literacy curricula (such as PLAAS and SHAPE) can be directed through academic institutional channels at the University of Pennsylvania.

12. References

Boykin, A. W. (1986). The triple quandary and the schooling of Afro-American children. In U. Neisser (Ed.), The school achievement of minority children: New perspectives (pp. 57–92). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Cole, N. (2014). The effects of racial socialization and parent-child relationship quality on emerging adult reports of racial discrimination to parents (Master’s thesis). Virginia Commonwealth University. http://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/etd/3435

Cross, W. E., Jr. (1991). Shades of Black: Diversity in African-American identity. Temple University Press.

Friend, C. A. (2009). The influences of parental racial socialization on the academic achievement of African American children: A cultural-ecological approach (Doctoral dissertation). University of North Carolina at Greensboro. https://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/Friend_uncg_0154D_10117.pdf

Hughes, D., & Chen, L. (1997). When and what parents tell children about race: An examination of race-related socialization among African American families. Applied Developmental Science, 1(4), 200–214. https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532480xads0104_4

Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. J., Stevenson, H. C., & Spicer, P. (2006). Parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and agenda for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42(5), 747–770. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.747

Sellers, R. M., Rowley, S. A., Chavous, T. M., Shelton, J. N., & Smith, M. A. (1997). Multidimensional Inventory of Black Identity: A preliminary investigation of reliability and constuct validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(4), 805–815. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.4.805

Spencer, M. B. (2006). Phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory (PVEST): A self-organization perspective in context. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Theoretical models of human development (6th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 829–893). John Wiley & Sons.

Stevenson, H. C. (1999). Parents experience of racial socialization [Unpublished measurement instrument]. Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA.

Stevenson, H. C. (2006). Development and scoring of the racial socialization belief and experience scales for adolescents and parents [Unpublished manuscript]. Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA.

Stevenson, H. C. (2014). Promoting racial literacy in schools: Differences that make a difference. Teachers College Press.

Stevenson, H. C., Cameron, R., Herrero-Taylor, T., & Davis, G. (2002). Development of the Teenager Experience of Racial Socialization Scale: Correlates of race-related socialization frequency from the perspective of Black youth. Journal of Black Psychology, 28(2), 84–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798402028002002

Stevenson, H. C., Reed, J., & Bodison, P. (1996). Kinship social support and adolescent racial socialization beliefs: Extending the self to family. Journal of Black Psychology, 22(4), 498–508. https://doi.org/10.1177/00957984960224007

Thomas, A. J., Blackmon, S. M., Speight, S. L., & Friend, C. A. (2013). Factor analysis of the Parent Experience of Racial Socialization Scale. Journal of Black Psychology, 40(3), 260–283. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798413483558

13. Items of the Scale (Questionnaire)