Parenting Self-Efficacy Scale

Abstract

The Parenting Self-Efficacy Scale (PSES) is an established psychometric instrument designed to quantify parental confidence in communicating with children and adolescents regarding sexual health, physiology, contraception, and interpersonal relationships. Rooted in Albert Bandura‘s Social Cognitive Theory, the scale conceptualizes self-efficacy not as a generalized trait, but as a domain- and behavior-specific cognitive appraisal that directly governs parental communicative behavior. Developed by Colleen DiIorio and colleagues at Emory University, the instrument evolved from an initial 16-item instrument into a psychometrically refined 17-item scale comprising two distinct latent dimensions: Basic Information (10 items measuring confidence in explaining biological processes, contraceptive mechanisms, and disease transmission) and Relationship-Based Information (7 items assessing confidence in discussing relational negotiation, sexual refusal, delay of sexual debut, and resisting peer pressure). Each item is evaluated along a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (Not Sure at all) to 7 (Completely Sure), producing a total cumulative score between 17 and 119. Psychometric evaluations across diverse community cohorts—including mothers and fathers of preadolescents and adolescents—demonstrate robust internal consistency (total scale Cronbach’s α ranging from .85 to .94) and strong construct validity evidenced by significant positive associations with general communication, parenting satisfaction, self-esteem, and documented frequencies of parent-child sexual discussions. This article provides an exhaustive psychometric review of the PSES, detailing its theoretical foundation, empirical factor structure, diagnostic utility, cross-cultural applications, and operational administration protocols.

Keywords

Parenting Self-Efficacy Scale, PSES, parent-adolescent communication, sexual health education, Social Cognitive Theory, Albert Bandura, self-efficacy, adolescent sexual risk behavior, psychometrics, reproductive health communication, maternal self-efficacy, paternal self-efficacy

Authors

The Parenting Self-Efficacy Scale was developed and validated by a multidisciplinary team of behavioral scientists, nurse researchers, and biostatisticians led by Colleen DiIorio, PhD, RN, FAAN, Professor Emerita at the Rollins School of Public Health, Department of Behavioral Sciences and Health Education, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia. Co-investigators contributing to its initial psychometric construction, factor analytic evaluation, and intervention validation include William N. Dudley, PhD, Dongbing Wang, MS, Judith Wasserman, PhD, Melissa Eichler, MPH, Lisa Belcher, PhD, Frank McCarty, PhD, and Pamela Denzmore, BS. Inquiries regarding scale development, operational licensing, or adaptation protocols have historically been directed to Dr. DiIorio via the Rollins School of Public Health at Emory University ([email protected]).

Purpose

Adolescent sexual risk behaviors remain a critical public health concern globally, directly impacting rates of unintended teen pregnancy, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) transmission, and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Decades of developmental and epidemiological research indicate that open, informative, and values-based parent-adolescent communication serves as a powerful protective buffer, delaying sexual debut and increasing consistent contraceptive and barrier method utilization among sexually active youth. However, despite recognizing the necessity of such dialogues, substantial proportions of parents experience acute apprehension, embarrassment, informational deficits, and conversational avoidance when attempting to discuss sexual health topics with their offspring.

The primary purpose of the Parenting Self-Efficacy Scale is to provide researchers, family therapists, health educators, and pediatric clinicians with a standardized, psychometrically sound instrument to assess parents’ perceived agency and confidence in initiating and sustaining sex-related discussions. Methodologically, the scale bridges the gap between generalized parenting competence measures and domain-specific behavioral tasks. While broad parenting measures assess general warmth or disciplinary consistency, they consistently fail to predict whether a mother or father will actively teach an adolescent how to correctly apply a condom or navigate coercive relationship pressures.

In clinical and public health contexts, the PSES serves three critical functions:

• Needs Assessment and Baseline Screening: Identifying specific domains (e.g., biological facts versus interpersonal boundary-setting) where parents experience the lowest self-efficacy, thereby pinpointing curricular requirements for family life education programs.
• Intervention Evaluation: Serving as a primary mediator and outcome variable in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) testing parent-targeted sexual risk reduction programs, such as interventions designed to empower fathers or maternal communication workshops.
• Etiological Research: Elucidating the cognitive pathways through which parental demographics, cultural norms, gender dynamics, and personal sexual attitudes influence protective health communication within diverse family systems.

Psychological Construct

The core psychological construct evaluated by the PSES is domain-specific parental self-efficacy regarding parent-child sexual communication. Grounded in cognitive-behavioral paradigms, self-efficacy does not reflect an individual’s objective clinical knowledge or communicative eloquence; rather, it reflects their subjective generative capability—the internal conviction that one can successfully organize, execute, and maintain communication on sensitive sexual topics across developmental transitions.

To reflect the multifaceted nature of adolescent sexuality, the construct is operationalized into two distinct yet interdependent sub-dimensions:

1. Basic Information (Subscale 1)

This dimension comprises 10 items assessing parental efficacy across biological development, reproductive mechanics, barrier contraception, and disease transmission. The cognitive task required of the parent within this domain involves mastering and translating factual, anatomical, and logistical realities into age-appropriate language without succumbing to conversational avoidance or anxiety. Specific behavioral competencies measured include:

• Explaining biological milestones, such as pubertal changes, female menstruation, and male nocturnal emissions (“wet dreams”).
• Conveying the mechanics, acquisition, and operational application of barrier methods, specifically detailing how to put on a condom and where to obtain condoms.
• Articulating the pharmacological mechanisms of oral contraceptive pills, how they prevent conception, and how they are acquired.
• Translating epidemiological realities regarding STI and HIV/AIDS transmission risks in the absence of consistent condom use.

2. Relationship-Based Information (Subscale 2)

Comprising 7 items in the refined scale, this dimension shifts focus from mechanistic biology to complex interpersonal negotiations, emotional intimacy, normative values, and behavioral assertiveness. Parents frequently report higher conversational anxiety in this domain because it demands nuanced emotional guidance rather than rote medical facts. Specific communicative capabilities assessed include:

• Guiding adolescents on techniques for delaying sexual intercourse and establishing non-coital avenues of romantic intimacy (“ways to have fun without having sexual intercourse”).
• Teaching assertive verbal and behavioral refusal skills when confronting unwanted sexual overtures (“how to tell someone no”).
• Instructing adolescents on negotiating sexual postponement with romantic partners (“how to make a partner wait until ready”).
• Fostering emotional literacy to discern genuine romantic affection from manipulative sexual coercion (“how to tell if a girl or boy really loves them”).
• Bolstering psychosocial resistance against pervasive peer pressure favoring premature sexual debut.
• Articulating personal and parental values regarding young adolescent sexual activity.

Theoretical Framework

The PSES is theoretically anchored in Albert Bandura‘s Social Cognitive Theory (1986, 1997), specifically the construct of perceived self-efficacy. Bandura defined self-efficacy as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments.” Within social cognitive ontology, human agency operates within an interdependent model of triadic reciprocal causation involving cognitive/biological events, behavioral patterns, and environmental influences.

Bandura explicitly underscored that self-efficacy is inherently task- and context-specific. Omnibus or global self-efficacy metrics (e.g., general self-esteem, overall parenting satisfaction) exhibit negligible predictive validity when forecasting complex, high-friction behaviors. Communicating about sex with an adolescent constitutes a unique, emotionally loaded behavioral challenge characterized by cultural taboos, fear of legitimizing premature experimentation, and interpersonal vulnerability. Consequently, a parent may possess high generalized parenting self-efficacy regarding disciplinary practices or academic support, yet experience near-total self-efficacy collapse when faced with demonstrating condom application or explaining nocturnal emissions.

According to social cognitive architecture, parental communication self-efficacy is constructed through four foundational informational sources:

1. Enactive Mastery Experiences: Prior successful conversations with children regarding emotional or bodily changes bolster parental efficacy, whereas awkward, confrontational, or aborted conversations diminish perceived capability.
2. Vicarious Experiences: Observing modeled communication behaviors—either through role-playing in parenting programs, digital modeling, or observing peer parents—allows individuals to generate cognitive scripts for their own communicative execution.
3. Verbal Persuasion: Social encouragement from healthcare providers, educators, or co-parents strengthens an individual’s conviction that they possess the requisite competence to guide their children.
4. Physiological and Affective States: Somatic cues such as autonomic arousal, blushing, stuttering, or visceral discomfort during sexuality discussions are often cognitively interpreted by parents as evidence of personal incompetence, directly undermining their communicative persistence.

Furthermore, Social Cognitive Theory distinguishes between efficacy expectations (the conviction that one can successfully execute the dialogue) and outcome expectancies (the belief that executing the dialogue will lead to specific positive outcomes, such as delayed sexual debut or reduced STI risk). The PSES deliberately isolates self-efficacy expectations, as theoretical and empirical data demonstrate that even when parents believe open sexual discussions produce optimal outcomes, they will systematically avoid initiating them if their personal efficacy expectations remain low.

Validity

The psychometric validity of the Parenting Self-Efficacy Scale has been extensively evaluated across multiple empirical studies utilizing diverse demographic samples.

Construct and Convergent Validity

In the seminal psychometric validation study conducted by DiIorio et al. (2001) involving a cohort of 491 mothers of adolescents aged 11 to 14 years, construct validity was established through bivariate correlational analyses against theoretically adjacent measures. Total PSES scores exhibited statistically significant positive correlations with:

• Reported Parent-Child Sexuality Communication: Parents with elevated PSES scores engaged in significantly higher frequencies of detailed sex-related discussions, confirming that self-efficacy acts as an enabler of actual behavior.
• General Communication Competence: Positive associations were identified with standardized metrics of family communication, demonstrating that sexual communication efficacy is situated within broader communicative competence while retaining distinct variance.
• General Parenting Style and Competence: Significant correlations emerged with validated parental warmth and involvement indices.
• Parental Self-Esteem: Moderate positive associations confirmed that personal self-regard provides a supportive baseline for communicative self-efficacy.

Known-Groups and Divergent Validity

Theoretical literature on adolescent socialization posits marked divergence based on dyadic gender configurations. DiIorio et al. (2001) demonstrated known-groups validity by showing that mothers of adolescent daughters exhibited significantly higher parenting self-efficacy than mothers of adolescent sons. This empirical disparity mirrors sociocultural trends where maternal figures report greater ease discussing reproductive physiology (e.g., menstruation) with daughters than navigating male-specific developmental milestones.

In subsequent investigations involving fathers, such as the randomized controlled trial by DiIorio, McCarty, and Denzmore (2006) with 277 African American and Caucasian father-son dyads, the scale differentiated fathers based on previous involvement in health promotion, demonstrating that fathers undergoing structured communication interventions experienced significant gains in PSES scores compared to control participants.

Predictive and Ecological Validity

In a community study by Pluhar, DiIorio, and McCarty (2008) examining mothers of younger children (ages 6 to 12), PSES scores predicted both the breadth of sexual topics broached and the proactive initiation of discussions prior to pubertal onset. Longitudinal studies tracking cohorts into late adolescence demonstrate that elevated baseline parental PSES scores reliably forecast lower rates of early sexual debut and higher rates of protected first intercourse among offspring, confirming robust ecological utility.

Reliability

The PSES displays exceptional internal consistency across varied sample populations, parental genders, and cultural backgrounds.

Internal Consistency Metrics

• Initial Maternal Cohort (16-item scale; DiIorio et al., 2001): Among 491 mothers of adolescents aged 11–14, the overall scale demonstrated a Cronbach’s α of .85. The mean inter-item correlation was .28, with corrected item-to-total correlations ranging from .24 to .61, indicating a cohesive yet non-redundant item set. Individual item means ranged from 4.46 to 6.76 (SDs = 0.78 to 2.25).
• Subscale Consistency (DiIorio et al., 2001): The 10-item Basic Information factor yielded an α of .84. The original 6-item Relationship-Based Information factor demonstrated an α of .67. To rectify this marginal coefficient, the authors authored an additional item targeting relational pressure resistance, resulting in the contemporary 17-item scale.
• Father Cohort in HIV Prevention Trial (17-item scale; DiIorio et al., 2006): Evaluated within an RCT involving 277 fathers of adolescent boys, the 17-item PSES achieved a total Cronbach’s α of .85, confirming identical reliability across male caregiver populations.
• Mothers of Preadolescents (Pluhar et al., 2008): When administered to mothers of preadolescent children aged 6 to 12, the instrument exhibited elevated consistency, yielding a Cronbach’s α of .94.

Measurement Precision and Standard Error

The standard error of measurement (SEM) across published cohorts remains consistently low relative to total score variance. Furthermore, the absence of floor effects confirms that the instrument remains sensitive across low-efficacy parents, while modest ceiling effects are observed primarily on biological items among experienced mothers of older adolescent daughters.

Factor Analysis

The dimensional structure of the Parenting Self-Efficacy Scale was delineated through rigorous latent variable modeling. During initial instrument development, 16 candidate items were drafted based on qualitative focus groups with mothers and an exhaustive synthesis of adolescent sexual development literature.

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

DiIorio et al. (2001) conducted an exploratory common factor analysis utilizing maximum likelihood estimation paired with oblique (Promax) rotation, accounting for anticipated theoretical correlations between communication dimensions. The initial unconstrained extraction yielded three factors with eigenvalues exceeding 1.0, accounting for 51% of the cumulative item variance. However, inspection of the rotated factor pattern revealed that the third factor was psychometrically unviable, consisting of only a single loading item.

A second maximum likelihood factor analysis was subsequently conducted specifying a two-factor extraction. The resulting two-factor oblique solution provided a clean, parsimonious, and theoretically coherent model, explaining 44% of the total variance:

• Factor 1: Basic Information accounted for the dominant proportion of variance. Ten items loaded strongly onto this factor (loadings ≥ .40). These items encompassed anatomical events, barrier method logistics, contraceptive functionality, and HIV/STI etiology, effectively unifying the biological and practical dimensions of sex education.
• Factor 2: Relationship-Based Information captured interpersonal and psychosocial dimensions. Six items loaded primarily onto this factor, indexing negotiation, boundary enforcement, delayed debut, and peer resistance.

Model Refinement (Expansion to 17 Items)

Because the initial 6-item Relationship-Based factor exhibited an internal consistency reliability slightly below conventional psychometric thresholds (α = .67), psychometricians added a seventeenth item (“I can always explain to [my child] how to resist peer pressure to have sex”) to reinforce the relational resistance domain. Subsequent confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) across diverse community samples have validated this 17-item, two-factor correlated structure, demonstrating acceptable fit indices (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation [RMSEA] ≤ .06; Comparative Fit Index [CFI] ≥ .92; Tucker-Lewis Index [TLI] ≥ .90).

Instrument / Measurement Tool

The operational characteristics, administrative protocols, and structural properties of the PSES are summarized below:

• Instrument Name: Parenting Self-Efficacy Scale (PSES)
• Primary Author: Colleen DiIorio, PhD, RN, FAAN (Emory University)
• Assessment Type: Domain-specific self-report behavioral rating scale (paper-and-pencil, computer-assisted interview [CAI], or clinical interview)
• Target Respondent: Parents, legal guardians, or primary caregivers of children and adolescents (ages 6 to 18 years)
• Number of Items: 17 items (standard refined version; 16 items in original 2001 validation)
• Item Stem: Each statement utilizes the standardized behavioral stem: “I can always explain to [my child]…” (where [my child] is replaced with the child’s legal or chosen first name)
• Response Scale: 7-point Likert-type scale anchored as follows:
  • 1: Not Sure at all
  • 2: (Unlabeled intermediate)
  • 3: (Unlabeled intermediate)
  • 4: Moderately Sure
  • 5: (Unlabeled intermediate)
  • 6: (Unlabeled intermediate)
  • 7: Completely Sure
• Administration Time: Approximately 5 to 10 minutes; self-administered with minimal participant burden
• Scoring Protocol:
  • All 17 items are positively keyed; no reverse scoring is required.
  • Total Score: Calculated by summing the numerical ratings across all 17 items. Total theoretical score ranges from 17 to 119. Higher aggregate scores indicate elevated parental self-efficacy regarding sexual health communication.
  • Basic Information Subscale Score: Sum of Items 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14, and 15 (10 items; score range: 10 to 70).
  • Relationship-Based Information Subscale Score: Sum of Items 3, 4, 10, 11, 12, 16, and 17 (7 items; score range: 7 to 49).

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Parenting Self-Efficacy Scale was initially published in 2001 by Dr. Colleen DiIorio and colleagues within the peer-reviewed literature (Journal of Nursing Measurement). The expanded 17-item version was formally utilized in randomized intervention trials published in 2006. The scale was developed with academic grant support and is generally accessible for non-commercial academic, clinical, and public health research purposes without royalty fees, provided appropriate formal citation is accorded to the original authors. For commercial deployment, institutional digitization, or integration into proprietary electronic health record (EHR) platforms, explicit written authorization must be obtained from the corresponding author, Dr. Colleen DiIorio, at the Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University.

References

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman and Company.

DiIorio, C., Dudley, W. N., Wang, D., Wasserman, J., Eichler, M., & Belcher, L. (2001). Measurement of parenting self-efficacy and outcome expectancy related to discussions about sex. Journal of Nursing Measurement, 9(2), 135–149. https://doi.org/10.1891/1061-3749.9.2.135

DiIorio, C., McCarty, F., & Denzmore, P. (2006). An exploration of social cognitive theory mediators of father-son communication about sex. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 31(9), 917–927. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpepsy/jsj099

Pluhar, E. I., DiIorio, C. K., & McCarty, F. (2008). Correlates of sexuality communication among mothers and 6–12-year-old children. Child: Care, Health and Development, 34(3), 283–290. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2007.00806.x

Items of the Scale