Positive Affect Negative Affect Schedule for Children (PANAS-C)

Abstract

The Positive Affect Negative Affect Schedule for Children (PANAS-C) is a premier self-report psychometric instrument engineered to evaluate affective states and trait dispositions in pediatric populations aged approximately 8 to 18 years. Developed by Laurent and colleagues in 1999 as a downward extension of Watson, Clark, and Tellegen’s adult PANAS, the instrument specifically operationalizes the two dominant, orthogonal dimensions of emotional experience: Positive Affect (PA) and Negative Affect (NA). While the original adult instrument utilized vocabulary frequently inaccessible to youth, the PANAS-C provides developmental tailoring through linguistically simplified, empirically derived emotion adjectives. The standard full version comprises 27 items (12 items capturing PA and 15 items capturing NA), while subsequent psychometric refinements have produced robust brief versions (including a widely adopted 10-item short form). Items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale assessing emotional experiences over specified temporal intervals, such as “during the past few weeks” or “right now.” Across extensive clinical and non-clinical developmental samples, the PANAS-C exhibits exceptional psychometric properties, consistently demonstrating high internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha typically ranging from .85 to .90 for PA and .88 to .94 for NA), stable temporal reliability over brief intervals, and sound structural validity verified through exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Critically, the instrument provides vital empirical support for Clark and Watson’s tripartite model of anxiety and depression, demonstrating that pediatric depressive presentations are characterized by the distinct confluence of low positive affect and elevated negative affect, whereas pediatric anxiety disorders are predominantly characterized by elevated negative affect without a necessary decrement in positive emotional engagement. Consequently, the PANAS-C represents an indispensable measurement tool in developmental psychopathology, school psychology, clinical trials, and pediatric behavioral medicine.

Keywords

PANAS-C, Positive Affect, Negative Affect, pediatric psychometrics, child emotional assessment, tripartite model, developmental psychopathology, adolescent depression, pediatric anxiety, self-report affect scale, exploratory factor analysis, structural equation modeling

Authors

The Positive Affect Negative Affect Schedule for Children was developed through a collaborative multi-institutional investigation led by:

• Jeff Laurent, Ph.D. — Department of Psychology, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois. Primary investigator specializing in pediatric assessment, school psychology, and affective manifestations in youth.
• Salvatore J. Catanzaro, Ph.D. — Department of Psychology, Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois. Co-investigator with extensive scholarship in emotional regulation, generalized expectancies for negative mood regulation, and cognitive-behavioral processes.
• Thomas E. Joiner, Jr., Ph.D. — Department of Psychology, Florida State University (formerly at the University of Texas at Austin). Renowned expert in depressive disorders, suicidology, interpersonal-psychological theories of distress, and quantitative structural models of psychopathology.
• Karen D. Rudolph, Ph.D. — Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Specialist in developmental psychopathology, youth interpersonal stress, and emotional vulnerability during the transition to adolescence.
• Kimberly I. Potter, M.S. — Illinois State University. Research associate focused on developmental measurement, scale validation, and child psychological assessment.
• Sharon Lambert, Ph.D. — Illinois State University (later George Washington University). Scholar in child clinical psychology and adolescent emotional development.
• Lucinda Osborne, B.S. — Illinois State University. Contributor to pediatric psychometric data collection and item-level analysis.
• Tammy Gathright, B.S. — Illinois State University. Research assistant in pediatric behavioral sampling and emotional vocabulary scaling.

Purpose

The fundamental purpose of the Positive Affect Negative Affect Schedule for Children (PANAS-C) is to furnish developmental researchers, clinical child psychologists, school psychologists, and psychiatric practitioners with a linguistically appropriate, structurally robust self-report measure of general emotional functioning in youth. Prior to its construction, researchers attempting to evaluate childhood emotionality frequently relied upon adult scales that suffered from significant developmental limitations. Adult instruments, most notably the original 20-item PANAS (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988), featured advanced emotional lexicon—including descriptors like “hostile,” “scared,” “jittery,” “distressed,” and “inspired”—that younger children and early adolescents frequently misunderstood or lacked the cognitive-linguistic capacity to accurately endorse. Alternative childhood scales historically conflated affective experience with physiological symptoms, behavioral acting-out, or somatic distress, clouding the underlying emotional structures.

Clinically, the PANAS-C addresses a diagnostic challenge in pediatric mental health: the high rate of comorbidity and phenotypic overlap between anxiety disorders and depressive spectrum disorders in youth. According to the tripartite model of mood disorders, anxiety and depression share a substantial, non-specific general distress dimension, known structurally as Negative Affect (NA). However, they diverge sharply with respect to positive emotionality: childhood depression is uniquely delineated by anhedonia, emotional blunting, and an absence of positive engagement (low Positive Affect, or PA), whereas childhood anxiety is typically delineated by heightened physiological hyperarousal in the absence of a primary positive affect deficit. By separating affective experiences into two distinct, orthogonal dimensions, the PANAS-C provides clinicians with a clean, unconfounded assessment of whether a child’s distress is driven primarily by generalized tension and fear (elevated NA), marked loss of zest, pleasure, and enthusiasm (depleted PA), or an incapacitating intersection of both affective disruptions.

In academic and developmental research settings, the PANAS-C serves as a vital tool for longitudinal tracking of emotional trajectories across middle childhood and adolescence. Adolescence is universally recognized as an epoch of dramatic neurodevelopmental, endocrinological, and social reorganization, often marked by heightened affective volatility and steep escalations in internalizing disorders. The PANAS-C allows researchers to chart how biological maturation, puberty, familial dynamics, peer victimisation, and school stressors dynamically alter positive versus negative affect. Furthermore, in clinical outcome studies and randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), mindfulness-based interventions, or pharmacological agents, the PANAS-C acts as a treatment-sensitive metric capable of identifying whether a therapeutic intervention successfully attenuates distress (down-regulating NA) or actively cultivates resilience, subjective well-being, and vitality (up-regulating PA).

Psychological Construct

The PANAS-C is grounded in dimensional models of affect, which postulate that human emotional experiences can be organized into a two-dimensional affective space characterized by two broad, statistically independent affective systems: Positive Affect (PA) and Negative Affect (NA). Rather than treating emotions as categorical, discrete phenomena (such as pure fear, distinct guilt, or isolated anger), dimensional psychometrics demonstrates that individuals experience broad mood dispositions that systematically drive their psychological functioning.

The Positive Affect (PA) Dimension

Positive Affect reflects the extent to which a young person experiences subjective feelings of enthusiasm, alertness, energy, joy, and active engagement with the environment. High PA is characterized by a state of pleasurable engagement, high energy, mental alertness, zest, and optimism. A child exhibiting high levels of PA approaches life circumstances with curiosity, participates eagerly in social interactions, exhibits goal-directed exploration, and displays emotional resilience in the face of normative daily challenges. Representative emotional descriptors assessing this dimension include feeling happy, cheerful, excited, lively, proud, energetic, and joyful.

Conversely, low PA is not simply the presence of psychological pain or distress; rather, it reflects a state of motivational exhaustion, blunted hedonic capacity, sadness, fatigue, lethargy, and anhedonia. A youth experiencing chronically suppressed PA often manifests disinterest in previously enjoyed hobbies, academic apathy, withdrawal from peer groups, psychomotor slowing, and an overall absence of vitality. In psychopathology, this state of low positive engagement constitutes the affective cornerstone of major depressive disorder, dysthymia, and adolescent dysphoria.

The Negative Affect (NA) Dimension

Negative Affect represents a broad, general dimension of subjective distress and unpleasurable engagement that subsumes a wide variety of aversive emotional states. It is a universal vulnerability dimension encompassing emotional reactions to environmental threats, personal failure, interpersonal conflict, and cognitive appraisals of inadequacy. High NA is characterized by emotional turbulence, agitation, worry, subjective tension, irritability, and despair. A child scoring high on NA experiences heightened vulnerability to perceived stressors and frequently experiences subjective feelings such as being sad, scared, frightened, nervous, ashamed, guilty, mad, miserable, and disgusted.

Children characterized by high trait NA tend to interpret ambiguous environmental stimuli as threatening, dwell excessively on negative experiences, demonstrate cognitive biases toward threat and failure, and manifest frequent somatic complaints (such as non-specific stomachaches and headaches) linked to chronic emotional arousal. In contrast, low NA reflects a psychological state of calm, emotional equilibrium, serenity, and freedom from continuous psychic tension.

Orthogonality and Bipolarity

A crucial conceptual nuance of the psychological construct operationalized by the PANAS-C is the structural orthogonality between PA and NA. At the descriptive level, common sense might suggest that happiness and sadness are direct polar opposites located on a single, continuous bipolar line (ranging from extreme misery to extreme bliss). However, psychometric, neurobiological, and evolutionary research demonstrates that positive and negative affectivity are governed by distinct, neurobiologically dissociable systems (such as the Behavioral Activation System [BAS] and the Behavioral Inhibition System [BIS], respectively). Consequently, they can co-occur and vary independently over time. A child facing a high-stakes competitive sports event or academic examination may simultaneously experience elevated Positive Affect (feeling excited, alert, energetic) and elevated Negative Affect (feeling nervous, jittery, scared). The PANAS-C was explicitly engineered to preserve this structural independence, preventing the masking of complex mixed emotional states.

Theoretical Framework

The PANAS-C rests at the intersection of two foundational psychological paradigms: dimensional structural models of affect and the tripartite model of anxiety and depression.

The Circumplex and Orthogonal Dimensions of Affect

Historically, emotion theory was divided between basic categorical models (e.g., Paul Ekman’s primary universal emotions) and dimensional perspectives. During the 1980s, David Watson and Auke Tellegen advanced a foundational structural synthesis based on large-scale factor analyses of self-reported mood words. They established that affective states consistently project onto two orthogonal, 45-degree rotated dimensions within a circumplex affective space: Positive Affect and Negative Affect. While horizontal and vertical axes can describe valence (pleasure vs. displeasure) and arousal (activation vs. deactivation), rotating these axes by 45 degrees yields two high-activation marker dimensions: high-arousal pleasant affect (PA) and high-arousal unpleasant affect (NA). When Watson, Clark, and Tellegen (1988) developed the original PANAS, they designed it to maximize saturation on these two primary rotated factors while eliminating low-arousal or ambiguous items that could collapse the factors into a single bipolar valence scale.

The Tripartite Model of Anxiety and Depression

The primary clinical and diagnostic framework guiding the developmental adaptation of the PANAS-C is the tripartite model formulated by Lee Anna Clark and David Watson (1991). Prior to this model, diagnostic categorization struggled to explain the massive overlap between anxiety and depressive disorders, which frequently display diagnostic comorbidity rates exceeding 50% to 70% in clinical populations. Clark and Watson resolved this diagnostic puzzle by deconstructing affective disorders into three primary components:

1. General Distress / Negative Affect (NA): A shared, non-specific affective factor common to both anxiety and depressive disorders. Both anxious and depressed youth suffer from high levels of worry, psychological distress, irritability, sleeplessness, and dysphoria.
2. Anhedonia / Low Positive Affect (PA): A specific factor uniquely characteristic of depressive spectrum disorders. Depressed children manifest marked reductions in joy, zest, pride, energy, and social motivation. In contrast, youth experiencing uncomplicated anxiety disorders (e.g., specific phobias, social anxiety, panic) frequently maintain the capacity for positive emotional experience, enthusiasm, and hedonic pleasure when removed from their specific threat contexts.
3. Physiological Hyperarousal (PH): A specific somatic factor uniquely characteristic of anxiety disorders (particularly panic and somatic anxiety), characterized by autonomic activation, palpitations, trembling, shortness of breath, and dizziness.

Laurent and colleagues (1999) realized that validating the tripartite model in pediatric populations required a developmentally sound, unconfounded measure of PA and NA. Without an instrument that removed adult linguistic barriers, researchers could not reliably determine whether children’s emotional structures mirrored the adult tripartite framework. The PANAS-C proved that children as young as eight to nine years old possess differentiated affective structures that correspond closely to the tripartite model, confirming that low PA serves as a specific childhood marker for depressive symptoms, while high NA serves as a shared, general vulnerability factor for both anxiety and depression.

Validity

The psychometric validity of the PANAS-C has been rigorously established across numerous developmental, clinical, school-based, and cross-cultural investigations.

Construct and Factorial Validity

In the seminal scale development study by Laurent et al. (1999), an initial item pool of 62 emotional adjectives derived from child vocabulary frequency analyses and developmental focus groups was administered to 707 elementary and middle school students (grades 4 through 8). Following item-filtering procedures and factor extractions, a pristine 27-item two-factor solution emerged. Construct validity was evidenced by the high primary loadings of the designated items onto their respective target factors (loadings predominantly exceeding .50 to .75) and minimal cross-loadings onto non-target factors (typically < .20). Confirmatory factor analysis across multiple independent validation samples has continuously confirmed that a two-factor orthogonal or mildly correlated model demonstrates superior fit compared to single-factor or competing multidimensional configurations.

Convergent and Discriminant Validity

Extensive validation studies have demonstrated excellent convergent and discriminant validity against established pediatric self-report and clinician-rated batteries:

• Convergence with Child Depressive Measures: The PANAS-C Negative Affect scale correlates strongly and positively with the Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1992), with Pearson correlation coefficients typically ranging from r = .55 to .72. Concurrently, the PANAS-C Positive Affect scale exhibits moderate-to-strong negative correlations with the CDI (ranging from r = -.45 to -.65), confirming that depressive symptomatology in youth is robustly tethered to the depletion of positive emotionality.
• Convergence with Child Anxiety Measures: When compared against measures of pediatric anxiety, such as the Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS; Reynolds & Richmond, 1985) and the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Disorders (SCARED; Birmaher et al., 1997), the PANAS-C NA scale shows strong positive convergence (r = .60 to .75). In sharp contrast, the PANAS-C PA scale typically demonstrates very weak or non-significant correlations with anxiety metrics (r = -.05 to -.18). This pattern provides empirical proof of discriminant validity and confirms the tripartite premise that pediatric anxiety is characterized primarily by heightened negative affectivity without a fundamental suppression of positive affect.
• Discriminant Power between Clinical Subgroups: In clinical child psychiatric cohorts, children diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder score significantly lower on the PANAS-C PA scale than children diagnosed with pure Generalized Anxiety Disorder or Social Anxiety Disorder, even when both groups display equivalently elevated scores on the NA scale.

Predictive and Longitudinal Validity

Prospective investigations tracking children across academic years indicate that baseline elevations in PANAS-C NA predict future occurrences of both generalized internalizing distress and externalizing emotional volatility under heightened psychosocial stress. Furthermore, baseline deficits in PANAS-C PA prospectively predict the specific onset of clinical depressive episodes during the pubertal transition, establishing the prognostic value of the instrument in identifying adolescents at elevated risk for mood disorders.

Reliability

The PANAS-C demonstrates outstanding reliability across diverse pediatric cohorts, clinical settings, and linguistic adaptations.

Internal Consistency

Across empirical studies, the internal consistency of the PANAS-C subscales, as measured by Cronbach’s alpha (α) and McDonald’s omega (ω), consistently exceeds standard psychometric criteria for both research and clinical application:

• Full 27-Item PANAS-C: In the original validation cohort of Laurent et al. (1999), the 12-item Positive Affect scale achieved an internal consistency of α = .89 in elementary school samples and α = .90 in middle school samples. The 15-item Negative Affect scale yielded an α of .92 in elementary students and α = .94 in middle school students.
• Clinical Inpatient and Outpatient Samples: Subsequent studies involving youth receiving psychiatric services have replicated these figures, reporting alphas ranging from .86 to .91 for the PA scale and .89 to .94 for the NA scale, indicating that item cohesion remains robust even amid psychiatric distress.
• Brief and Short Forms: Even in condensed variations, such as the widely utilized 10-item PANAS-C Short Form (PANAS-C-SF; Ebesutani et al., 2012), internal consistency remains sound, with PA alphas typically falling between .83 and .88, and NA alphas ranging between .82 and .87.

Test-Retest Stability

Temporal stability metrics for the PANAS-C vary according to the temporal instructional set deployed. When administered under trait instructions (“how you generally feel” or “how you have felt during the past few weeks”), the instrument yields moderate-to-high test-retest reliability:

• Over a 2- to 3-week test-retest interval, correlation coefficients typically range from r = .65 to .78 for PA and r = .68 to .81 for NA, demonstrating adequate trait stability during developmental periods characterized by normative emotional flux.
• Over longer intervals (e.g., 6 months to 1 year), stability coefficients attenuate to r = .40 to .55, consistent with developmental shifts in affective style and environmental exposures across the childhood-adolescence transition.
• When administered with state instructions (“how you feel right now”), test-retest reliability across multi-week periods predictably decreases, confirming that the scale is sensitive to situational fluctuations in momentary mood states.

Factor Analysis

The structural dimensionality of the PANAS-C has been exhaustively scrutinized through both Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), reinforcing its two-dimensional affective taxonomy.

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

During original scale development, Laurent et al. (1999) executed principal-axis factor analyses with both orthogonal (Varimax) and oblique (Promax) rotations on a 62-item preliminary vocabulary battery. Cattell’s scree test, parallel analysis, and eigenvalues cleanly identified two dominant, robust factors that accounted for the vast majority of common variance:

• Eigenvalues and Explained Variance: The first two unrotated factors extracted large eigenvalues that clearly separated from subsequent trivial factors, confirming the presence of two primary structural components representing Positive Affect and Negative Affect.
• Item Salience and Pattern Matrices: The 12 retained PA items demonstrated clean factor loadings onto the PA dimension ranging from .53 to .77, with negligible cross-loadings onto the NA factor (typically < .15). The 15 retained NA items showed loadings on the NA dimension ranging from .50 to .80, with similarly low cross-loadings onto the PA factor.
• Inter-Factor Correlation: In oblique rotations, the empirical correlation between the PA and NA factors remained minimal (r values generally ranging between -.08 and -.22), corroborating the theoretical premise that positive and negative emotional states represent orthogonal, distinct dimensions of affective experience rather than opposite ends of a single continuum.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

Subsequent structural equation modeling across thousands of participants has evaluated competing latent factor models of the PANAS-C. Across diverse developmental populations, CFA has consistently confirmed the superiority of the two-factor orthogonal or slightly correlated model over alternative structural arrangements:

• Single-Factor vs. Two-Factor Models: A single-factor bipolar model (where positive and negative items load in opposite directions onto one general valence factor) yields unacceptable fit indices (e.g., Comparative Fit Index [CFI] < .65, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation [RMSEA] > .12). In contrast, the two-factor model provides robust fit indices across studies, typically achieving CFI > .92 to .95, Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) > .91 to .94, and RMSEA between .045 and .060.
• Bifactor and Hierarchical Configurations: More recent psychometric studies (e.g., Ebesutani et al., 2011) have tested bifactor structures to examine whether a general “affective intensity” or general distress factor exists alongside specific PA and NA dimensions. While bifactor models often show statistical adequacy, the two-factor model remains the most parsimonious, interpretable, and clinically practical structural framework.
• Measurement Invariance: Advanced multigroup CFA studies have established full metric and scalar invariance across sex (males vs. females) and partial-to-full scalar invariance across age brackets (elementary vs. middle vs. high school cohorts). This confirms that observed score differences reflect genuine developmental or gender-based variations in affect rather than item-level differential functioning or linguistic measurement bias.

Instrument / Measurement Tool

• Instrument Designation: Positive Affect Negative Affect Schedule for Children (PANAS-C).
• Target Population: Children and adolescents aged approximately 8 to 18 years (grades 3 through 12).
• Administration Type: Self-report paper-and-pencil or computer-assisted questionnaire; can also be read aloud by an administrator to younger children or individuals with reading difficulties.
• Administration Time: Approximately 5 to 10 minutes for the full 27-item inventory; 2 to 3 minutes for the 10-item short form.
• Subscale Composition (Full 27-Item Version):
  • Positive Affect (PA) Subscale: 12 items (e.g., happy, cheerful, excited, lively, proud, energetic, joyful, delighted, strong, enthusiastic, alert, interested).
  • Negative Affect (NA) Subscale: 15 items (e.g., sad, scared, frightened, nervous, ashamed, guilty, jittery, lonely, mad, disgusted, blue, gloomy, miserable, afraid, upset).
• Subscale Composition (10-Item Short Form – PANAS-C-SF):
  • Positive Affect (PA) Subscale: 5 items (energetic, happy, calm, proud, joyful).
  • Negative Affect (NA) Subscale: 5 items (mad, ashamed, scared, nervous, sad).
• Response Format: 5-point Likert-type scale with age-appropriate verbal anchors:
  • 1 = Very slightly or not at all
  • 2 = A little
  • 3 = Moderately
  • 4 = Quite a bit
  • 5 = Extremely
• Temporal Frame Adaptations: The scale can be administered with varied time-frame instructions depending upon research or clinical needs:
  • State: “How you feel right now, that is, at the present moment.”
  • Past Week / Past Few Weeks: “How you have felt during the past week / past few weeks” (Standard trait/sub-chronic instruction).
  • General: “How you feel in general, that is, on the average.”
• Scoring Algorithm:
  • Raw scores for each subscale are calculated by summing the numerical ratings assigned to the items comprising that specific subscale.
  • Positive Affect Score Range (Full Version): 12 to 60, with higher scores reflecting greater levels of enthusiasm, subjective energy, and positive emotional engagement.
  • Negative Affect Score Range (Full Version): 15 to 75, with higher scores denoting elevated subjective distress, tension, guilt, and emotional turmoil.
  • Positive Affect Score Range (10-Item Short Form): 5 to 25.
  • Negative Affect Score Range (10-Item Short Form): 5 to 25.
  • Note: Positive Affect and Negative Affect scores are calculated and interpreted independently; they are never summed or subtracted to form a single composite score.
• Normative & Clinical Interpretation: Scores are interpreted relative to age- and gender-stratified community norms. Consistently low PA scores (e.g., > 1.5 standard deviations below the community mean) suggest elevated risk for anhedonia and depressive disorders. Significantly elevated NA scores (> 1.5 to 2 standard deviations above the community mean) indicate non-specific emotional vulnerability, acute distress, or an ongoing internalizing disorder.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Positive Affect Negative Affect Schedule for Children was originally published in 1999 in the journal Psychological Assessment, an academic journal published by the American Psychological Association (APA). The development and psychometric properties of the scale were documented by Jeff Laurent, Salvatore J. Catanzaro, Thomas E. Joiner, Jr., Karen D. Rudolph, Kimberly I. Potter, Sharon Lambert, Lucinda Osborne, and Tammy Gathright.

Licensing and Research Use: In accordance with standard academic dissemination guidelines, the PANAS-C is widely accessible for educational, non-commercial research, and institutional scholarly purposes. Academic researchers and clinical investigators may typically utilize the scale items published within academic articles without paying royalty fees, provided that formal scholarly citation is attributed to the original authors and the American Psychological Association. However, commercial utilization, electronic health record integration, fee-for-service clinical distribution, or inclusion within proprietary diagnostic software platforms requires express written copyright authorization and potential licensing agreements with the copyright holder (the American Psychological Association or the primary scale developers).

References

The academic literature foundational to the conceptualization, validation, and clinical application of the PANAS-C includes the following key citations:

• Birmaher, B., Khetarpal, S., Brent, D., Cully, M., Balach, L., Kaufman, J., & Neer, S. M. (1997). The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): Scale construction and psychometric characteristics. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(4), 545–553. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199704000-00018
• Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1991). Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: Psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100(3), 316–336. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.100.3.316
• Ebesutani, C., Okamura, K., Higa-McMillan, C., & Chorpita, B. F. (2011). A psychometric analysis of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children–Parent Version in a school sample. Psychological Assessment, 23(2), 406–416. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022057
• Ebesutani, C., Regan, J., Smith, A., Chorpita, B. F., & Sherman, D. (2012). The 10-Item Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children, Child and Parent Shortened Versions: Application of item response theory for more efficient assessment. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 34(2), 191–203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-011-9273-2
• Kovacs, M. (1992). Children’s Depression Inventory: Manual. Multi-Health Systems, North Tonawanda, NY.
• Laurent, J., Catanzaro, S. J., Joiner, T. E., Rudolph, K. D., Potter, K. I., Lambert, S., Osborne, L., & Gathright, T. (1999). A measure of positive and negative affect for children: Scale development and preliminary validation. Psychological Assessment, 11(3), 326–338. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.11.3.326
• Reynolds, C. R., & Richmond, B. O. (1985). Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS): Manual. Western Psychological Services, Los Angeles, CA.
• Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
• Watson, D., & Tellegen, A. (1985). Toward a consensual structure of mood. Psychological Bulletin, 98(2), 219–235. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.219

Items of the Scale