Self-Esteem—Rochester Youth Development Study

Abstract

The Self-Esteem—Rochester Youth Development Study (RYDS-SE) scale is a 9-item psychometric instrument designed to assess global self-esteem and self-worth among adolescents and young adults. Originating as a specialized adaptation of Morris Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale for the landmark Rochester Youth Development Study (RYDS)—a multi-wave longitudinal panel study initiated in 1988—the scale was developed to capture key socio-emotional mechanisms influencing juvenile delinquency, prosocial development, and developmental psychopathology. The instrument measures an individual’s evaluation of their personal efficacy, pride, moral self-worth, and self-deprecation. The 9 items are evaluated on a 4-point Likert-type response scale ranging from 1 (“Strongly disagree”) to 4 (“Strongly agree”), featuring four positively phrased items and five negatively phrased, reverse-scored items. Psychometric evaluations across multiple waves of the Rochester cohort demonstrate robust internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha typically ranging between .78 and .86 across demographic subgroups and measurement waves), notable longitudinal stability, and sound structural validity. Confirmatory factor analyses generally substantiate an overarching unidimensional construct of global self-worth, alongside well-documented method factors common to mixed-valenced balance batteries. The scale has demonstrated profound predictive and convergent validity within developmental criminology, clinical psychology, and adolescent medicine, correlating significantly with measures of peer delinquency, depressive symptomatology, school engagement, and externalizing behavioral problems. The RYDS-SE is archived in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Compendium of Assessment Tools for measuring violence-related attitudes and behaviors.

Keywords

Self-Esteem, Rochester Youth Development Study, Adolescent Development, Psychometrics, Delinquency, Self-Concept, Rosenberg Scale Adaptation, Longitudinal Measurement, Internalizing Symptoms, Life-Course Criminology

Authors

The Rochester Youth Development Study—Self-Esteem Scale (RYDS-SE) was established by the principal investigators of the Rochester Youth Development Study research consortium. The core investigative team included:

• Terence P. Thornberry, Ph.D. — Distinguished Professor Emeritus in the Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice at the University of Maryland, College Park, and formerly at the School of Criminal Justice, University at Albany, State University of New York (SUNY). Dr. Thornberry served as the founding Principal Investigator of the RYDS project.
• Alan J. Lizotte, Ph.D. — Distinguished Professor in the School of Criminal Justice, University at Albany, State University of New York. Co-principal investigator focusing on the etiology of juvenile delinquency, firearms possession, and longitudinal modeling.
• Marvin D. Krohn, Ph.D. — Professor in the Department of Sociology and Criminology & Law at the University of Florida, and formerly Professor at the School of Criminal Justice, University at Albany. Renowned for work on adolescent social networks, drug use, and interactional theory.
• Carolyn A. Smith, Ph.D. — Professor Emeritus in the School of Social Welfare, University at Albany, SUNY. Specialist in family violence, resilience, and female adolescent delinquency pathways.

The RYDS consortium was administered through the Hindelang Criminal Justice Research Center at the University at Albany, SUNY, with prolonged funding from the National Institute of Justice (NIJ), the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), and the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). Compendium curation and standardization were completed in collaboration with the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

Purpose

The primary purpose of the RYDS-SE scale is to provide a concise, psychometrically sound, and developmentally sensitive assessment of global self-worth and self-esteem among urban adolescents, transitioning youths, and young adults. Developed during the initial design phase of the Rochester Youth Development Study in 1988, the instrument was conceived to address both substantive theoretical inquiries and practical measurement challenges inherent to high-risk longitudinal youth cohorts.

Theoretical and Epidemiological Rationale

Within longitudinal etiology research, self-esteem represents a foundational psychological construct positioned at the intersection of individual temperament, family dynamics, peer associations, and community stressors. Prior criminological and psychological theories offered conflicting hypotheses regarding the trajectory of self-esteem in antisocial behavioral development:

• Classical social bond theory (Hirschi, 1969) and strain theories posited that diminished self-esteem emerges from academic failure and social alienation, which subsequently lowers an adolescent’s stake in conformity and increases delinquent vulnerability.
• Conversely, competing models of antisocial deviance suggested that aggressive or gang-involved youth might protect or elevate their self-regard through non-normative peer cultures, displaying inflated or defensive self-esteem (Baumeister et al., 1996).
• To resolve these longitudinal discrepancies, the RYDS team operationalized a version of self-esteem that captured not only generalized competence and self-acceptance, but also internalized moral evaluation (e.g., assessing the perception of oneself as a “bad person”).

Research Applications

In research contexts, the RYDS-SE serves as:

• A Mediating Variable: Testing whether childhood maltreatment, poverty, or structural neighborhood disadvantage degrades psychological resilience, thereby fostering subsequent mental health difficulties or criminal justice involvement.
• A Reciprocal Process Indicator: Within Thornberry’s Interactional Theory, self-esteem is evaluated longitudinally as both an antecedent and a consequence of social bond strength, school performance, and deviant peer association across adolescent development.
• A Protective / Buffer Factor: Identifying how positive self-regard can attenuate the deleterious impact of community violence exposure on post-traumatic stress and depressive symptomatology.

Clinical and Applied Assessment Applications

In community, juvenile justice, and school-based settings, the RYDS-SE functions as an efficient screening instrument. Its brief 9-item structure minimizes respondent burden while reliably detecting youths experiencing pervasive self-deprecation, perceived worthlessness, or profound moral guilt. Such markers frequently signal severe internalizing problems, clinical depression, self-harm vulnerability, or maladaptive identity consolidation requiring targeted clinical intervention.

Psychological Construct

The RYDS-SE operationalizes global self-esteem—defined as the overarching affective and cognitive appraisal of an individual’s own worth, capability, and value as a human being. The instrument focuses on four key dimensions of self-regard:

1. Global Self-Satisfaction and Positive Self-Regard

This facet captures a holistic, affirmative perception of one’s personal identity and life. Exemplified by Item 1 (“In general, you are satisfied with yourself”), this dimension reflects what Carl Rogers characterized as congruence between the perceived self and the ideal self. Youths scoring high on this dimension display fundamental psychological acceptance of their strengths and limitations, serving as a primary buffer against acute environmental stress.

2. Comparative Competence and Perceived Self-Efficacy

Rather than assessing isolated, domain-specific skills (e.g., athletics or academics), this construct captures an adolescent’s subjective sense of parity with peers. Reflected in Item 4 (“You can do things as well as most other people”) and Item 7 (“You feel that you are at least as good as other people”), this dimension examines comparative capability and egalitarian social standing. It reflects the individual’s internalized belief that they are not inherently inferior or deficient relative to their peers.

3. Self-Deprecation and Perceived Worthlessness

A core axis of self-esteem involves the negative, depressive affective spectrum. Captured by Item 2 (“At times you think you are no good at all”), Item 5 (“You feel you do not have much to be proud of”), and Item 6 (“You feel useless at times”), this component measures the presence of chronic shame, perceived helplessness, and absence of pride. In psychiatric nosology, high endorsements on these reverse-scored items align closely with the cognitive triad of depression described by Aaron Beck, marked by negative self-referential schema.

4. Moral Identity and Self-Respect

Unique to the RYDS operationalization is the explicit inclusion of moral self-evaluation alongside desire for personal respect. Item 8 (“You wish you could have more respect for yourself”) targets aspirational self-respect and intrapsychic dissatisfaction. Crucially, Item 9 (“Sometimes you think of yourself as a bad person”) captures the internalization of deviance, moral defectiveness, or deep-seated guilt. In youth development, labeling oneself as a “bad person” represents a profound developmental marker indicating the incorporation of societal or parental stigmatization into the adolescent’s core self-concept.

Theoretical Framework

The Rochester Youth Development Study Self-Esteem Scale is rooted in three foundational theoretical traditions: Morris Rosenberg’s phenomenological model of self-concept, Travis Hirschi’s Social Bond Theory, and Terence Thornberry’s Interactional Theory of Delinquency.

Rosenberg’s Phenomenological Sociological Perspective

The primary architectural basis of the RYDS-SE derives from the theoretical work of Morris Rosenberg (1965, 1979). Rosenberg posited that self-esteem is an affective orientation—a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the self. Rosenberg underscored two critical conceptual distinctions:

• Basic self-acceptance vs. feelings of superiority: Authentic high self-esteem denotes that an individual respects oneself, considers oneself worthy, and recognizes personal merits without demanding superiority over others.
• Self-deprecation vs. low self-worth: Rosenberg argued that self-esteem batteries inevitably elicit both positive self-evaluations and feelings of self-criticism, necessitating balanced item directionality to avoid acquiescence bias.

Integration within Interactional Theory

The primary theoretical driver for deploying this scale within the RYDS longitudinal architecture was Terence P. Thornberry’s Interactional Theory (Thornberry, 1987; Thornberry et al., 1994). Interactional theory synthesizes social control and social learning perspectives into a dynamic, life-course framework. Central to Thornberry’s paradigm are three core tenets regarding self-esteem:

1. Reciprocal Causality: Rather than viewing low self-esteem merely as a static cause or passive consequence of delinquent conduct, interactional theory posits reciprocal feedback loops. Weakening attachments to family and school reduce self-esteem, which drives youth toward deviant peer networks; involvement with delinquent peers may further degrade normative self-concept or crystallize a deviant identity (captured by Item 9, “bad person”).
2. Developmental Trajectories: The influence of psychological self-worth evolves across developmental phases. During early adolescence (grades 7–8, when RYDS baseline data were gathered), the family and school environments exert the strongest influence on self-worth. By late adolescence and early adulthood, intimate partners, autonomous career roles, and cumulative criminal justice interactions become dominant forces in reshaping self-worth.
3. Interactive Buffering: Robust self-esteem serves as an internal psychological bond that protects vulnerable adolescents exposed to adverse social capital, neighborhood disorganization, or family distress.

Validity

The RYDS-SE has undergone extensive empirical evaluation across diverse longitudinal cohorts. Psychometric evaluations confirm solid construct, convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity.

Construct and Structural Validity

Construct validity is evidenced by the scale’s alignment with established theoretical expectations across demographic strata. Research utilizing the RYDS database demonstrates that the scale functions equivalently across diverse racial, ethnic, and gender subgroups. Factor-analytic modeling across multiple measurement waves (from adolescent Wave 1 through late-adolescent Wave 9 and adulthood assessments) has shown consistent factorial invariance, confirming that the scale measures the same latent construct across developmental transitions.

Convergent Validity

The scale demonstrates substantial convergent associations with theoretically adjacent psychological constructs:

• Depressive Symptomatology: Correlates strongly and negatively (typically r = −.48 to −.62) with standardized depression measures, such as the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D).
• Generalized Anxiety and Psychological Distress: Moderate to strong inverse associations (r = −.38 to −.51) are observed with adolescent neuroticism and internalized distress inventories.
• Family and Parental Attachment: Statistically significant positive correlations (r = .32 to .46) emerge with validated measures of maternal and paternal attachment, parental positive reinforcement, and perceived emotional support.

Discriminant Validity

Discriminant validity is supported by the scale’s divergence from distinct behavioral and personality measures:

• While moderately linked to general affect, the RYDS-SE displays low correlations (r < .20) with pure cognitive ability, general academic aptitude tests, and objective socioeconomic status indices. This confirms that it captures affective self-appraisal rather than objective performance.
• The scale distinguishes effectively between generalized internalizing self-derogation and sensation-seeking or impulsivity constructs, which exhibit near-zero correlations with the composite score.

Predictive and Criterion Validity

Longitudinal findings from the RYDS study provide strong evidence of criterion and predictive validity:

• Substance Use and Abuse: Lower baseline self-esteem at ages 13–14 prospectively predicts elevated risk of early-onset alcohol and illicit drug abuse during late adolescence, controlling for prior delinquency.
• Delinquent Pathways and Gang Involvement: Youths scoring lower on positive self-esteem and displaying high endorsement of Item 9 (“bad person”) exhibit significantly higher hazards of joining youth gangs and escalating into chronic violent delinquency across subsequent study waves.
• Resilience in High-Risk Environments: Among youths exposed to parental criminality or domestic abuse, elevated self-esteem at early waves significantly predicts educational persistence and reduces the probability of teen pregnancy.

Reliability

The psychometric reliability of the RYDS-SE has been established across multiple independent evaluations and longitudinal waves:

Internal Consistency

Internal consistency estimates (Cronbach’s alpha) for the 9-item scale demonstrate high stability and reliability across adolescence and early adulthood:

• Adolescent Samples (Grades 7–9): At baseline (Wave 1, N = 1,000), the scale yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of .79 to .82 across the full urban sample.
• Demographic Subgroups: Internal consistency remained robust when analyzed separately across gender and ethnic categories: African American youths (α = .80 to .83), Hispanic/Latino youths (α = .78 to .82), and Caucasian youths (α = .81 to .84).
• Subsequent Longitudinal Waves: Across successive interview waves into late adolescence (ages 16–18), Cronbach’s alpha coefficients consistently remained within the .81 to .86 range, confirming high measurement precision.

Test-Retest Stability

Longitudinal stability coefficients reflect expected developmental patterns:

• Short-term test-retest reliability across a 6-month interval during early adolescence yielded stability coefficients of r = .62 to .68, reflecting normative developmental fluctuations in early adolescent self-appraisal.
• Longer-term stability across multi-year spans (e.g., age 14 to age 18) yielded stability correlations ranging from r = .45 to .54. This indicates that while self-esteem possesses notable trait-like stability, it remains dynamic and responsive to environmental, relational, and life-course changes.

Factor Analysis

The internal dimensionality of the RYDS-SE has been examined through both Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), mirroring classic structural debates surrounding the original Rosenberg scale.

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

Unconstrained EFA (using principal axis factoring with promax or oblimin rotation) typically uncovers a two-factor empirical solution:

• Factor 1: Positive Self-Worth / Competence — Comprising Items 1, 3, 4, and 7. Factor loadings for these items range from .58 to .76.
• Factor 2: Negative Self-Deprecation / Perceived Worthlessness — Comprising Items 2, 5, 6, 8, and 9. Factor loadings range from .52 to .74, with Item 2 (“no good at all”) and Item 6 (“feel useless”) exhibiting the strongest loadings on this dimension.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Method Effects

In structural modeling, psychometricians have tested three alternative configurations:

1. Strict Unidimensional Model: All 9 items load onto a single global self-esteem latent factor. Model fit: χ² / df > 4.5, RMSEA ≈ .078, CFI ≈ .91, TLI ≈ .89.
2. Two-Factor Correlated Model: Positive Self-Worth and Negative Self-Deprecation specified as distinct, correlated latent factors (r ≈ −.65 to −.72). Model fit improves substantially: RMSEA ≈ .046, CFI ≈ .96, TLI ≈ .95.
3. Bifactor / Method-Effect Model: A single substantive global self-esteem factor alongside an orthogonal method factor accounting for the negative item phrasing (Items 2, 5, 6, 8, 9). This specification yields the best statistical fit (CFI > .98, RMSEA < .035).

These CFA findings confirm that the bifactor model best accounts for the data: the scale represents an overarching, unidimensional construct of self-esteem, where two apparent subfactors reflect linguistic phrasing directionality rather than distinct substantive dimensions. Consequently, calculating a single global composite score remains the standard, theoretically supported scoring approach.

Instrument / Measurement Tool

The RYDS-SE is a brief, self-administered or interviewer-administered questionnaire consisting of 9 items. Below is the operational summary of the instrument structure:

• Test Type: Psychometric Self-Report Questionnaire / Structured Interview Scale
• Target Population: Adolescents (grades 7–12), emerging adults, and adult follow-ups; adapted particularly for urban, high-risk, and community populations
• Administration Time: Approximately 3 to 5 minutes
• Number of Items: 9 items
• Response Format: 4-point Likert-type response scale:
  • 1 = Strongly disagree
  • 2 = Disagree
  • 3 = Agree
  • 4 = Strongly agree
• Item Keying and Directionality:
  • Directly Coded (Positive) Items: 1, 3, 4, 7 (Scoring: Strongly disagree = 1, Disagree = 2, Agree = 3, Strongly agree = 4)
  • Reverse Coded (Negative) Items: 2, 5, 6, 8, 9 (Scoring: Strongly disagree = 4, Disagree = 3, Agree = 2, Strongly agree = 1)
• Scoring and Computational Rules:
  1. Invert the raw scores of the five reverse-coded items (Items 2, 5, 6, 8, and 9) using the conversion: Recoded Score = (5 − Raw Score).
  2. Compute the total score by summing all 9 recoded items. The cumulative sum ranges from 9 to 36.
  3. Calculate the standardized mean composite score by dividing the summed total by the total number of items (9), yielding a final score ranging from 1.00 to 4.00.
  4. Interpretation: Higher numerical scores indicate a greater sense of positive global self-esteem, self-efficacy, and self-worth. Lower scores indicate severe self-deprecation, self-criticism, and vulnerability to internalized distress.

Permissions & Fee and Test Year

Initial Year of Deployment: 1988 (Wave 1 baseline data collection of the Rochester Youth Development Study).

Archival Publication: The instrument was standardized and published in the public domain in 2005 as part of the official Centers for Disease Control and Prevention compendium: Measuring Violence-Related Attitudes, Behaviors, and Influences Among Youths: A Compendium of Assessment Tools (Dahlberg, Toal, Swahn, & Behrens, 2005, p. 150).

Licensing and Fee Structure: Because the development and compilation of the scale were funded by U.S. federal research grants through the National Institute of Justice, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and the CDC, the instrument resides in the public domain. There are no licensing fees, royalties, or formal administrative costs associated with its use for non-commercial, academic, clinical, or public health research.

Usage Guidelines: Researchers and practitioners are free to use the scale without formal written permission, provided that appropriate scholarly attribution is accorded to the original Rochester Youth Development Study research consortium and the CDC Compendium reference source.

References

• Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M. (1996). Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem. Psychological Review, 103(1), 5–33. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.103.1.5
• Dahlberg, L. L., Toal, S. B., Swahn, M., & Behrens, C. B. (2005). Measuring Violence-Related Attitudes, Behaviors, and Influences Among Youths: A Compendium of Assessment Tools (2nd ed.). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. Atlanta, GA. Page 150. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/YV_Compendium.pdf
• Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of Delinquency. University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520310230
• Krohn, M. D., Lizotte, A. J., & Perez, C. M. (1997). The interrelationship between substance use and precocious transitions to adult statuses. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 38(1), 87–103. https://doi.org/10.2307/2955363
• Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400876136
• Rosenberg, M. (1979). Conceiving the Self. Basic Books.
• Smith, C. A., & Thornberry, T. P. (1995). The relationship between childhood maltreatment and adolescent involvement in delinquency. Criminology, 33(4), 451–481. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1995.tb01186.x
• Thornberry, T. P. (1987). Toward an interactional theory of delinquency. Criminology, 25(4), 863–892. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1987.tb00823.x
• Thornberry, T. P., Lizotte, A. J., Krohn, M. D., Farnworth, M., & Jang, S. J. (1994). Delinquent peers, beliefs, and delinquent behavior: A longitudinal test of interactional theory. Criminology, 32(1), 47–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1994.tb01146.x
• Thornberry, T. P., Lizotte, A. J., Krohn, M. D., & Smith, C. A. (2003). Gang Members on the Move: The Role of Gang Membership in the Acceleration and Deceleration of Criminal Delinquency. Cambridge University Press.

13. Items of the Scale (Questionnaire)