Sexual Knowledge and Attitude Test for Adolescents

1. Abstract

The Sexual Knowledge and Attitude Test for Adolescents (SKAT-A) is a comprehensive, developmentally tailored, psychometrically validated self-report instrument designed to evaluate sexual knowledge proficiency, evaluative sexual attitudes, and sexual behavioral experiences among adolescent and young adult populations (Fullard, Scheier, & Lief, 2005). Adapted from the original Sex Knowledge and Attitude Test (SKAT) originally developed by Harold I. Lief and David M. Reed for healthcare professionals, the adolescent adaptation addresses the critical cognitive, socioemotional, and behavioral transformations that characterize adolescent sexual development. The instrument comprises four primary sections: a 40-item Attitudinal Inventory measured along a 5-point Likert scale, a 40-item Knowledge Inventory utilizing a trichotomous response format (True, False, Not Sure), an extensive Sexual Behavior Inventory (SBI), and a background demographic profile. Confirmatory factor analyses of the attitudinal domain establish a robust six-factor primary structure comprising Premarital Sexuality, Rape and Coercion, Masturbation, Abortion, Homosexuality, and Pornography (χ²(465) = 3861.98, p < .001; Root Mean Square Error of Approximation [RMSEA] = .051; Standardized Root Mean Square Residual [SRMR] = .065; Comparative Fit Index [CFI] = .831). The knowledge domain assesses proficiency across six specialized domains: pregnancy and contraception, abstinence and sexual awareness, orgasm, masturbation, negative consequences of sexual intercourse, and homosexuality. Psychometric evaluations demonstrate sound internal consistency across diverse socio-demographic samples, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients reaching .84 for high school students and .88 for collegiate respondents in the attitude domain, alongside .79 and .75 respectively for the knowledge domain. Two-week test-retest reliability ranges from .78 to .89 across subscales. Construct, convergent, and discriminant validity analyses substantiate the theoretical independence of cognitive knowledge versus evaluative attitudes, illustrating distinct predictive pathways toward real-world sexual behaviors, contraceptive consistency, and health-risk trajectories.

2. Keywords

Sexual Knowledge and Attitude Test for Adolescents, SKAT-A, adolescent sexuality, psychometrics, sexual attitudes, sexual health knowledge, confirmatory factor analysis, adolescent risk behavior, contraception, sex education evaluation

3. Authors

The Sexual Knowledge and Attitude Test for Adolescents was conceptualized, revised, and validated across several iterations by a prominent multidisciplinary team of developmental psychologists, psychometricians, and psychiatric scholars:

• William Fullard, Ph.D.: Professor Emeritus of Educational Psychology, College of Education and Human Development, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Dr. Fullard has contributed foundational research to developmental assessments, early child development, and adolescent psychometrics.
• Lawrence M. Scheier, Ph.D.: Director and Senior Research Scientist, LARS Research Institute, Inc., Las Vegas, Nevada, United States. Dr. Scheier holds additional academic affiliations with Washington University in St. Louis, Cornell University, and the Department of Public Health, Division of Prevention and Health Behavior, Institute for Prevention Research. Correspondence address: Lawrence M. Scheier, LARS Research Institute, Inc., 11735 Glowing Sunset Lane, Las Vegas, NV 89135; E-mail: [email protected].
• Howard I. Lief, M.D. (Deceased): Professor of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Dr. Lief was the pioneering developer of the original adult Sex Knowledge and Attitude Test (SKAT) and founding director of the Center for the Study of Sex Education in Medicine.

4. Purpose

The primary purpose of the Sexual Knowledge and Attitude Test for Adolescents (SKAT-A) is to deliver a standardized, multidimensional, and developmentally calibrated psychological measurement system designed to assess how youth between the ages of 12 and 20 perceive, understand, and navigate human sexuality (Fullard et al., 2005). During early, middle, and late adolescence, individuals undergo profound neurobiological, hormonal, cognitive, and social transformations. As secondary sex characteristics develop and cognitive capacities transition toward formal operational abstract reasoning, adolescents encounter unprecedented interpersonal choices surrounding intimacy, dating, sexual experimentation, and reproductive health. In the absence of validated empirical instruments, educators, clinicians, and developmental scientists historically struggled to differentiate between genuine factual deficits regarding sexual anatomy and reproductive physiology, and subjective socio-normative or moralistic belief systems. The SKAT-A was engineered precisely to bridge this diagnostic and pedagogical divide.

From an applied clinical and public health perspective, the SKAT-A functions as an indispensable diagnostic and evaluative tool. Unintended teenage pregnancies, the transmission of sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including HIV, and experiences of non-consensual sexual pressure or intimate partner violence represent critical adolescent morbidity indices globally. By delineating an adolescent’s specific gaps in sexual knowledge—such as mistaken beliefs regarding the fertility cycle, condom efficacy, or asymptomatic STI transmission—clinical psychologists, school counselors, and pediatric health providers can tailor preventive psychoeducation. Simultaneously, identifying high-risk attitudinal postures (e.g., rigid approval of coercive sexual tactics, permissive orientations toward unsafe sexual experimentation, or severe internalized homonegativity) enables targeted clinical interventions aimed at modifying cognitive schemas before maladaptive patterns manifest in adverse behavioral outcomes.

In educational and research contexts, the SKAT-A serves as a standardized baseline and outcome evaluation metric for comprehensive sexuality education programs, school-based health curricula, and community intervention initiatives. Traditional evaluation methodologies frequently rely on non-standardized ad hoc questionnaires that suffer from unverified factor structures, restricted range, and poor psychometric stability. The SKAT-A resolves these limitations by offering psychometrically robust subscales that have been validated across diverse urban, racial, socioeconomic, and developmental cohorts. Researchers can investigate complex structural equation models that test the mediating role of sexual attitudes between socio-environmental risk factors and health-protective behaviors, or track longitudinal developmental shifts in sexual literacy across the second decade of life.

5. Psychological Construct

The SKAT-A operationalizes adolescent sexuality as an interconnected yet structurally distinct triad of psychological domains: cognitive factual knowledge proficiency, evaluative attitudinal dispositions, and overt behavioral histories. Each domain comprises nuanced dimensions grounded in empirical developmental psychology:

Attitudinal Dimensions

The attitudinal domain encompasses 40 items operationalized across six distinct first-order latent constructs, rated on a 5-point Likert agreement continuum:

• Premarital Sexuality: Measures the individual’s acceptance, permissiveness, or moral condemnation regarding sexual intercourse occurring outside the framework of marital commitment. This construct captures the continuum between restrictive, abstinence-exclusive beliefs and permissive philosophies that view premarital sexual expression as a natural component of developmental exploration.
• Rape and Coercion: Assesses cognitive schemas regarding sexual boundary violations, interpersonal coercion, power differentials, and victim-blaming attributions. High scores reflect rejection of coercive scripts, recognition of mutual consent, and awareness of the illegitimacy of sexual entitlement, whereas lower or maladaptive scores identify adherence to rape myths and acceptance of coercive pressure.
• Masturbation: Evaluates subjective judgments and moral evaluations regarding solitary autoerotic stimulation. In many adolescent cohorts, masturbation remains burdened by internalized guilt, perceived physical harm, or moral distress. This subscale measures the degree to which an adolescent views autoerotism as a normative, harmless sexual outlet versus an aberrant or guilt-inducing practice.
• Abortion: Captures personal, ethical, and socio-legal attitudes toward the termination of pregnancy under various circumstances (e.g., contraceptive failure, personal unreadiness, health risks). It reflects personal autonomy versus moral or religious proscriptions surrounding reproductive termination.
• Homosexuality: Probes affective and evaluative stances regarding same-sex attraction, romantic relationships, and sexual identity. This dimension gauges tolerance, civil equality, and personal acceptance versus heteronormative bias, prejudice, and homophobic stigmatization.
• Pornography: Evaluates the adolescent’s perspective on the legitimacy, moral appropriateness, censorship, and personal consumption of explicit erotic media. This dimension provides insights into how modern media consumption patterns intersect with emerging sexual norms.

Knowledge Proficiency Dimensions

The knowledge domain encompasses 40 objective items designed to capture cognitive comprehension rather than personal preference, spanning six core areas:

• Pregnancy and Contraception: Evaluates factual comprehension regarding human conception, the female ovulatory cycle, fertile windows, mechanisms of modern barrier and hormonal contraceptives, and correct usage parameters.
• Abstinence and Sexual Awareness: Probes accurate understanding of the protective parameters of deliberate sexual abstinence, boundaries of intimacy, and emotional self-awareness in interpersonal relationships.
• Orgasm: Evaluates physiological and neurological literacy regarding human sexual response cycles, the multifactored etiology of orgasmic experience across sexes, and common misconceptions surrounding sexual satisfaction.
• Masturbation Knowledge: Differentiates factual biological realities from persistent cultural and historical myths (e.g., erroneous beliefs that masturbation causes physical debility, mental disorders, or infertility).
• Negative Consequences of Sexual Intercourse: Assesses comprehension of the transmission mechanisms, symptoms, and potential sequelae of STIs, pelvic inflammatory diseases, and psychosocial risks accompanying early, unprotected intercourse.
• Homosexuality Knowledge: Probes factual awareness regarding the etiology, epidemiological distribution, and scientific consensus concerning sexual orientation development, debunking pervasive clinical fallacies.

Sexual Behavior Inventory (SBI)

The behavioral construct captures objective lifetime and current involvement in a hierarchical continuum of sexual practices, ranging from non-coital activities (holding hands, dating, deep kissing, petting, oral intercourse) to penetrative coitus, age of sexual initiation, lifetime partner counts, historical incidence of STIs, and frequency of condom or contraceptive deployment.

6. Theoretical Framework

The architectural foundation of the SKAT-A is rooted in several converging paradigms within cognitive, social, and developmental psychology. Most prominently, the instrument is anchored in the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and its successor, the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), formulated by Icek Ajzen and Martin Fishbein (Ajzen, 1991). Under the TPB framework, human behavioral intention is directly determined by evaluative attitudes toward the behavior, subjective normative beliefs, and perceived behavioral control. When applied to adolescent sexual decision-making, an individual’s engagement in health-protective practices—such as negotiating consistent condom use—is fundamentally guided by their explicit attitudes toward contraception and premarital intercourse. However, the SKAT-A expands beyond classical TPB by positing that cognitive knowledge forms the essential foundational substrate upon which realistic behavioral control and accurate risk appraisals are established.

The scale is further grounded in the Information-Motivation-Behavioral Skills (IMB) Model of sexual health, articulated by Fisher and Fisher (1992). The IMB framework posits that sexual health knowledge represents a necessary, albeit independently insufficient, prerequisite for health-promoting sexual behavior. For knowledge to translate into actual self-protective routines, it must be paired with personal and social motivation (measured via the SKAT-A’s attitudinal dimensions) and self-efficacy skills (captured via the behavioral inventory). The SKAT-A explicitly operationalizes the distinction between the “Information” (Knowledge domain) and “Motivation” (Attitude domain) components, enabling psychometric verification of how factual literacy interacts with subjective emotional appraisals to influence sexual risk trajectories.

From a developmental perspective, the SKAT-A aligns with Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986) and life-span developmental models of adolescence (Erikson, 1968; Steinberg, 2008). During the adolescent phase of identity formation versus role confusion, youths must consolidate their emerging sexual identities within complex socio-cultural milieus. Social Cognitive Theory emphasizes that adolescents acquire sexual scripts not merely through direct somatic experience, but vicariously through peer modeling, parental communications, mass media, and formal education. The SKAT-A’s multidimensional architecture measures the cognitive schema internalization that occurs when adolescents assimilate cultural scripts regarding gender roles, consent, sexual pleasure, and reproductive autonomy.

7. Validity

Empirical validation of the SKAT-A has been established through extensive construct, convergent, discriminant, and criterion-related validity analyses conducted across diverse adolescent and emerging adult cohorts (Fullard et al., 1998, 2005; Johnston, 1998; Lief et al., 1990).

Construct and Criterion Validity

Criterion-related validity is robustly demonstrated by the instrument’s capacity to predict real-world adolescent sexual behaviors documented in the Sexual Behavior Inventory. In an urban sample of 516 high school students (mean age = 16.7 years; 59% female), latent attitudinal factors exhibited substantial, statistically significant associations with behavioral markers:

• A 7-item composite scale measuring the cumulative frequency and depth of sexual experiences (e.g., dating, kissing, petting, oral sex; α = .80) correlated strongly and positively with Premarital Sexuality attitudes (r = .42, p < .001) and Pornography attitudes (r = .35, p < .001).
• Direct self-reports of penetrative coital experience demonstrated marked positive associations with permissive Premarital Sexuality attitudes (r = .31, p < .001) and Pornography attitudes (r = .18, p < .05).
• Adolescent reports of homosexual experiences were inversely correlated with permissive or tolerant Rape/Coercion attitudes (r = −.14, p < .05), reflecting distinct cognitive-behavioral profiles regarding interpersonal boundaries.
• Permissive attitudes toward Abortion correlated significantly with higher frequency of proactive contraceptive deployment (r = .28, p < .01).

Knowledge and Behavioral Correlates

Criterion validity for the knowledge scales was evidenced by distinct predictive patterns connecting specific factual proficiencies with health-seeking behaviors:

• Knowledge regarding Abstinence and Sexual Awareness exhibited a significant positive correlation with the frequency of consistent contraceptive use (r = .24, p < .01).
• Knowledge of Homosexuality issues was similarly correlated with general contraception awareness (r = .24, p < .01), while displaying an inverse relationship with certain sub-facets of usage frequency (r = −.15, p < .05).
• Specific anatomical and physiological knowledge dimensions, namely Orgasm knowledge (r = .15, p < .01) and Masturbation knowledge (r = .11, p < .05), showed the highest unique associations with cumulative sexual behavioral experience.

Discriminant Validity

A critical psychometric hallmark of the SKAT-A is the empirical divergence between the cognitive knowledge scales and the evaluative attitudinal factors. Across the urban high school cohort, the average correlation between the six latent attitudinal factors and the six knowledge domain scores was exceptionally modest: Premarital Sexuality attitudes (r_avg = .07), Rape/Coercion (r_avg = .10), Masturbation (r_avg = .13), Abortion (r_avg = .12), Homosexuality (r_avg = .12), and Pornography (r_avg = .12). This low degree of shared variance confirms that sexual knowledge and sexual attitudes represent distinct psychological constructs rather than interchangeable facets of general sexual literacy.

Furthermore, known-groups discriminant validity was established by comparing high school students (N = 516) to an older collegiate comparative sample (N = 240, mean age = 23.0 years). Collegiate respondents demonstrated substantially higher proficiency scores across all six knowledge dimensions compared to adolescents (whose mean proficiencies ranged from 25% to 33%), reflecting the anticipated developmental and educational divergence across successive life stages.

8. Reliability

The SKAT-A demonstrates strong psychometric reliability across internal consistency estimates and temporal stability metrics, established across both secondary school and tertiary collegiate samples (Fullard et al., 1998, 2005; Johnston, 1998).

Internal Consistency

Internal consistency analyses reveal that both the attitudinal subscales and the objective knowledge inventory exhibit adequate to high reliability coefficients:

• Attitudinal Domain: The composite internal consistency across the derived attitudinal subscales achieved a Cronbach’s alpha of .84 among urban high school students (N = 516) and .88 within the collegiate validation sample (N = 240). Individual factor loadings within the confirmatory measurement model remained statistically significant (all p < .001), with mean standardized indicator loadings per factor ranging from λ = .40 for Abortion to λ = .61 for Masturbation.
• Knowledge Domain: Total scale internal consistency for the 40 objective knowledge items yielded an alpha of .79 in the adolescent high school sample and .75 in the collegiate sample. The moderate alpha values are developmentally expected given the broad multidimensionality and trichotomous item difficulty distributions of factual sexuality curricula.
• Behavioral Indices: The 7-item cumulative sexual experience inventory demonstrated high internal consistency (α = .80).

Test-Retest Stability

Temporal stability of the SKAT-A was assessed over a standardized two-week administration interval:

• Attitudinal Subscales: The two-week test-retest correlation coefficient was .88 in the high school sample (n = 45) and .89 in the college sample (n = 52), demonstrating that evaluative sexual schemas remain stable over short intervals in the absence of targeted educational interventions.
• Knowledge Scales: The two-week test-retest reliability coefficient for the objective knowledge items was .78 among high school students and .85 among college undergraduates, verifying that the trichotomous scoring procedure produces stable estimates of underlying factual competence without erratic guessing variance.

9. Factor Analysis

The internal structural architecture of the SKAT-A has been rigorously tested through both exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) procedures (Fullard et al., 1998, 2005; Johnston, 1998).

Exploratory Factor Analyses

Early psychometric investigations of the adolescent instrument utilized principal components and exploratory common factor analyses with orthogonal and oblique rotations. In preliminary high school cohorts, EFA identified five predominant content factors accounting for the underlying attitudinal variance: Masturbation, Homosexuality, Pornography, Premarital Sex, and Abortion (Lief et al., 1990). Subsequent structural refinements indicated that items addressing sexual assault, interpersonal pressure, and power dynamics coalesced into a distinct psychological dimension, warranting the extraction of a separate Rape/Coercion construct.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA)

In the comprehensive 2005 revision, Fullard, Scheier, and Lief evaluated a theory-driven, six-factor first-order CFA model configured with simple structure based on prior work with young adults (Fullard et al., 1998). The specified latent factors were: (1) Premarital Sexuality, (2) Rape/Coercion, (3) Masturbation, (4) Abortion, (5) Homosexuality, and (6) Pornography.

The baseline six-factor primary model demonstrated adequate fit to the empirical data collected from 516 urban high school students:

• Model Chi-Square: χ²(465) = 3861.98, p < .001
• Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA): .051 (90% CI [.049, .053]), indicating close approximate fit to the population covariance matrix.
• Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR): .065, reflecting acceptable levels of off-diagonal residual variance.
• Comparative Fit Index (CFI): .831.

The investigators noted that while the CFI hovered below the modern conservative threshold of .95 advocated by Hu and Bentler (1998), this index could have been elevated substantially by specifying post-hoc correlated measurement error residuals or cross-loadings. However, to preserve a pure simple structure, avoid capitalizing on sample-specific chance, and uphold the integrity of cross-validation parameters in samples near N = 500 (MacCallum, 1986), no post-hoc specification searches were permitted. All 40 attitudinal indicators loaded significantly onto their designated latent factors (all p < .001). Average standardized factor loadings (λ) ranged from .40 (Abortion items) to .61 (Masturbation items).

Higher-Order Factor Structural Testing

To examine whether an overarching, generalized “sexual permissiveness” or “sexual liberalism” super-factor accounted for the correlations among the six primary dimensions, a second-order CFA model was formally tested against the primary first-order model. The hierarchical model positing a single higher-order factor resulted in a significant degradation of model fit: Δχ²(37) = 2767.46, p < .001. This substantial statistical worsening confirmed that adolescent sexual attitudes are inherently multidimensional; adolescents do not possess a monolithic attitudinal stance, but rather maintain differentiated evaluations across distinct sexual issues.

10. Instrument / Measurement Tool

The SKAT-A is a structured, comprehensive, pencil-and-paper self-report assessment protocol designed for individual or group administration. The operational characteristics of the measurement system are summarized below:

• Test Type: Multidimensional self-report psychological inventory combining psychometric attitude rating scales, an objective knowledge proficiency exam, and a behavioral history record.
• Target Population: Adolescents (ages 12 to 18) and emerging young adults (ages 19 to 23). Suitable for middle schools, high schools, university clinics, youth detention centers, and community health organizations.
• Administration Time: Standard survey administration requires approximately 20 to 30 minutes for complete protocol execution.
• Instrument Structure: Composed of four distinct, sequential sections:
  • Part I: Attitudinal Inventory (40 Items): Evaluates subjective beliefs, norms, and moral stances across six domains (Premarital Sexuality, Rape/Coercion, Masturbation, Abortion, Homosexuality, Pornography). Response format is a 5-point Likert scale: 1 = Strongly Agree, 2 = Agree, 3 = Uncertain / Neutral, 4 = Disagree, 5 = Strongly Disagree. Eleven items are reverse-scored to mitigate acquiescence response set bias.
  • Part II: Knowledge Proficiency Inventory (40 Items): Measures objective factual competence across six specialized health areas (Pregnancy/Contraception, Abstinence/Awareness, Orgasm, Masturbation, Negative Consequences, Homosexuality). Response format is trichotomous: True, False, or Not Sure.
  • Part III: Sexual Behavior Inventory (SBI): Evaluates chronological and experiential involvement in sexual practices, including age at first intercourse, dating milestones, lifetime partner numbers, contraceptive consistency, barrier method adherence, and history of sexually transmitted infections. Utilizes categorical checklists and continuous numerical entries.
  • Part IV: Demographic and Background Questionnaire: Gathers contextual socio-demographic indicators using forced-choice and open-ended items (e.g., age, grade level, biological sex, racial/ethnic identity, family structure, parental occupational status, age at menarche).
• Scoring Procedures:
  • Attitude Subscales: After inverting the 11 reverse-coded items, continuous subscale scores are computed by summing or averaging item ratings within each of the six latent domains. Higher scores reflect greater permissiveness, tolerance, or liberal endorsement depending on directional scoring protocols.
  • Knowledge Proficiency Subscales: Scored objectively. Correct responses are assigned a value of +1; incorrect responses are assigned 0. Crucially, selecting Not Sure is treated as an absence of knowledge rather than a factual error and is not penalized in the proficiency calculation: Scale Proficiency = (Number of Correct Items) − (Number of Incorrect Items), or expressed as a raw percentage of accurate identifications per subscale.
  • Behavioral Indices: Quantified as ordinal milestone stages or continuous frequency counts (e.g., the 7-item cumulative sexual experience index).

11. Permissions & Fee and Test Year

The Sexual Knowledge and Attitude Test for Adolescents was initially developed in preliminary versions during the late 1980s and 1990s (Lief, Fullard, & Devlin, 1990; Fullard, Johnston, & Lief, 1998) and reached its finalized, standardized modern edition in 2005 (Fullard, Scheier, & Lief, 2005). The instrument is registered with the United States Copyright Office.

The complete testing battery, administration manuals, item booklets, and standardized scoring keys are managed and distributed by the LARS Research Institute, Inc. Researchers, educators, and clinicians intending to utilize the SKAT-A for academic, programmatic, or diagnostic purposes must obtain formal authorization. A nominal administrative handling and reproduction fee is charged per test manual or administration packet. Interested parties may request examination copies or licensing agreements via the official distributor website (www.larsri.org) or by contacting Dr. Lawrence M. Scheier directly at LARS Research Institute, Inc., 11735 Glowing Sunset Lane, Las Vegas, NV 89135 (E-mail: [email protected]).

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13. Items of the Scale